EPILOGUE

Nine Pǎli stanzas and their Myanmar translations:

(1 & 2) On Saturday, the thirteenth waxing day of the first Wazo, 1331 Myanmar Era, the 2513th year of the Sǎsana, the month when the Alexandrian laurel Calaphyllum blooms forth in the forest and the traditional festival of admitting new entrants into the Order is being held throughout the land, at eleven a.m.

3. This work entitled ‘The Great Chronicle of Buddhas’, the tome that came into being under the sponsorship of the State Sǎsana Council as a sequel to the Sixth Buddhist Council, portraying the life story of the Buddhas (and especially), that of Buddha Gotama from the fulfilling of the Perfections to the day-to-day events relating to Him, was completed for the edification of the followers of the Buddha who uphold righteousness - a most auspicious achievement indeed.
4. The Buddha, the Conqueror of the five Mǎras or Evils, endowed with great diligence, who occupied Himself by day and by night with the five functions of the Buddha, lived for forty-five νassa (years) during which He ferried the multitudes of deva and humans across to the yonder shores of Nibbǎna by means of the ship of the Eightfold Ariya Path.
5. To the Buddha, the Conqueror of the five Mǎras, I, acclaimed as the great, distinguished Thera who has memorized the Three PiÔakas, who, thanks to past merit, has been fortunate enough to live a life devoted to Buddhistic studies since his novicehood, pay homage behumbling myself in body, speech and mind, with this tome entitled ‘The Great Chronicle of The Buddhas’, arranged in forty-five chapters in respectful memory of the forty-five years of the Buddha's Noble mission, an exegetical work embodying erudite judgements on readings in the Text and the Commentaries.
6. As the result of this work of great merit done by me with diligence, knowledge and conviction, may all sentient beings benefit from it: may they clearly understand (through learning, reflecting and cultivation) the Dhamma, the Good Doctrine expounded by the Supreme Lord of Righteousness for the welfare of the multitudes, for their happiness pertaining to the human world and the deva- world, and the Peace of Nibbǎna.
7. May the multitudes, by following the Middle Way (of eight constituents) which is purified by shunning the two extremes of self-indulgence and self- mortification, which brings happiness by clearing away the hindrances to Path- Knowledge and its fruition, realize with facility (through the ten stages of Insight), the supreme Peace of Nibbǎna that liberates one from craving for all forms of existence, that is free from all sorrow (caused by five kinds of loss) and grief (that gnaws at the hearts of worldlings).
8. May the Buddha's Teaching (that consists of learning, training and penetration) last for five thousand years, shining forth like the sun, overriding the corroding influence of sophists or captious contenders. May all beings in all the human world, the deva-world and the Brahmǎ-world have firm conviction in, and deep respect for the Dhamma expounded by the Buddha. May the Rain God, benefactor of the human world, bless the earth with his bounteous showers at the proper time (i.e. at night, for fields of poor fertility once in five days, for fields of medium fertility once in ten days, and for fields of good fertility once in fifteen days).
9. May the rulers of the country give protection to the people like the good kings of yore. May they work for the welfare of the people just as they would for their own children, on the example of those benevolent rulers who extended their loving care to their subjects by upholding the ten principles of rulership,

The Venerable Buddhaghosa, the famous Commentator, in his Epilogue to the AÔÔhasǎlinī (an exegesis on the Abhidhamma) and the Pañcapakaraṇa made his wish in four stanzas beginning with: “Yaṁ patthaṁ kusalaṁ tassa.” We have adopted them here, respectfully endorsing his sentiments therein. (Stanzas 6 to 9 above).

In doing so, we are also endorsing the view of the Sub-Commentator, the Venerable SaÑgharakkhitamahǎsǎmi, author of the Sǎratthavilǎsinī, wherein it has been said: ‚For one who does not work for the benefit of others, no real benefit accrues to him. That is true. And true indeed it is a statement fit to be proclaimed with one's right arm raised.‛

Such being the words of the wise, may all right-minded persons make a point of directing their efforts towards the good of others and thereby do good to themselves as well.

Here comes the completion of ‚The Great Chronicle Of Buddhas‛.

May I be endowed with the three knowledges (νijjǎ).

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THE ANUD¢PAN¢

On The Great Chronicle of Buddhas foreword

The word, ‚anudīpanī‛ is purely Pǎli, ‚anu‛ meaning ‚further‛ and ‚dīpanī‛,

‚explanation‛; hence ‚further explanation‛ of what is not explicit in the original writing is called ‚anudīpanī‛. After the Venerable Ledi Sayadaw had written an exegetical work, Paramatthadīpanī on the Abhidhammatthasaṇgaha, he composed another work, entitled,

‚Anudīpanī‛, to explain again what is vague in the Paramatthadīpanī.

Similarly, an expository work under the title of ‚Anudīpanī‛, on some words or passages of the Great Chronicle which deserve elaboration or explication, is written here separately as a supplement. Had the expositions been included in the original work, readers would find the textual expressions and their meanings confusing. This would be a distraction for readers. Therefore, it is deemed necessary to compile comprehensive notes on important points and topics in the Text as a supplement (anudīpanī), for the benefit of serious students of the Great Chronicle.

It is hoped that, by going through the anudīpanī, difficult subjects in the Chronicle would become more easily understandable and profound meanings of some usages would become clearer. Therefore, it is suggested that after reading the Chronicle, readers should study the Anudīpanī with greater interest. May they understand easily the deep and important meaning, which might otherwise remain unrevealed or overlooked.

Chapter I - III Anudīpanī on words and phrases Definition of Pǎramī

The set of ten virtues including dǎna (alms-giving), sīla (morality), etc. is called Pǎramī

(Perfection).

A Bodhisatta (future Buddha), being endowed with these ten virtues, such as dǎna, sīla, etc. is known as a Parama or Extraordinary Personality. On this basis, therefore, the etymology of Pǎramī is: Paramǎnaṁ bhǎνo (state of Extraordinary Personalities), which is derived from two things: the knowledge of those who see and know them as such and the saying of those who see and know them that they really are. An alternative etymology is Paramanam kamman (work of Extraordinary Personalities); hence their course of conduct, consisting of dǎna, sīla, etc. is called Pǎramī.

The order of the ten Perfections should be known by the following verse:

Dǎnaṁ sīlañ ca nekkhammaṁ paññǎ νīriyena pañcamaṁ khantī saccam adhiṭṭhǎnaṁ mett’ upekkhǎ ti te dasa.

Alms-giving, Morality, Renunciation, Wisdom, Energy as the fifth. forbearance, Truthfulness, Resolution, Loving-kindness and Equanimity;

all these make ten (Perfections).

[Each perfection is of three categories, namely, Pǎramī (Ordinary Perfection), Upa- Pǎramī (Higher Perfection) and Paramattha-Pǎramī (Highest Perfection). for instance, dǎna is of three categories: (1) Dǎna-pǎramī (Ordinary Perfection of Alms-giving), (2) Dǎna upa-pǎramī (Higher Perfection of Alms-giving) and Dǎna paramattha-pǎramī

(Highest Perfection of Alms-giving). Likewise for the Sīla and each of the remaining virtues.] Thus there are thirty kinds of Perfection in its detailed enumeration.

Difference between Pǎramī, Upa-pǎramī and Paramattha-pǎramī

With regard to these three categories, (1) properties, such as one’s own gold, silver, etc. and family members, such as one’s own children and wife, (2) limbs, big and small, such as one’s own hands, legs, etc. and (3) one’s own life, should be noted first. Then referring to dǎna, (1) Gift of properties is Dǎna-pǎramī, (2) Gift of limbs, big and small, is Dǎna-upa- pǎramī and (3) Gift of life is Dǎna-paramattha-pǎramī.

Similarly, (1) observance of morality at the sacrifice of properties, (2) observance of morality at the sacrifice of limbs, big and small and (3) observance of morality at the sacrifice of life, are to be understood as Sīla-pǎramī, Sīla-upa-pǎramī and Sīla-paramattha- pǎramī respectively. Likewise, for the remaining eight perfection, the same way of classification should be applied.

Different views held by different commentators may be looked up in the exposition of the word, ‚ko νibhago‛ in the Pakiṇṇaka Kathǎ of the Cariyǎ PiÔaka Commentary.

Adhimuttimaraṇa

Voluntary passing away by self-determination is called ‚Adhimuttimaraṇa‛. It is the kind of death that takes place as soon as one resolves: ‚May death come unto me‛. Such a death could happen only to future Buddhas and not to others.

Sometimes a future Buddha is reborn in a deva or a Brahmǎ-world where the span of life is extremely long. He is aware of the fact that, living in a celestial world, he has no chance whatsoever to fulfil and cultivate Perfections, Sacrifices and Practices and, therefore, he feels such a lengthy life in that celestial abode is boredom. Then, after entering his mansion, he shuts his eyes and no sooner has he resolved: ‚May my life-faculty ceases to be‛, then he experiences the impact of death and passes away from that divine realm. His resolution materialises partly because he has little attachment to his body, as he has particularly conditioned the continuity of his body by attaining higher knowledge and partly because his resolution based on overwhelming compassion for beings is intense and pure.

As he has control of his mind, so has he control of his deeds. Accordingly, when he dies such voluntary death, he is reborn in the human world as a prince, a brahmin, etc. so that he can fulfil any Perfections he wishes to. That is why, though our future Buddha Gotama had lived in many existence in the Brahmǎ abode without losing his attainment of jhǎna, he existed only for a short time in that Brahmǎ-world as he died voluntarily. He passed away from the Brahmǎ existence into the human existence and build up elements of Perfections.

Kappa or Aeon

What is called Kambhǎ in Myanmar is Kappa in Pǎli. Therefore, it is said in the text of the BuddhavaÑsa: ‚kappe ca satasahasse, caturo ca asankhiye‛ etc.

The duration of a kappa cannot be calculated by the number of years. It is known only by inference. Suppose there is a big granary which is one yojana each in length, breath and height and which is full of tiny mustard seeds. You throw out just one seed each century. When all the mustard seeds have been thrown out, the period called kappa have not come to an end yet. (from this, it is to be inferred that the word kappa in Pǎli or the word kambhǎ in Myanmar is an extremely long time. But, nowadays, the word kambhǎ exactly means such a period is forgotten, and the word is used in the sense of the mass of the earth as in the expression kambǎ-mye-pyin (earth surface), kambǎ-mye-lone (the globe), etc.

Divisions of kappa

It should therefore be noted that kambhǎ and kappa are the same. The kappa is of six divisions: (1) Mahǎ-kappa, (2) Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, (3) Antara-kappa, (4) Œyu-kappa, (5) Hǎyana-kappa and (6) Vaddhana-kappa.

One Mahǎ-kappa is made up of four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas, namely, (a) the kappa in the

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process of dissolution (SaÑvaÔÔa-kappa), (b) the kappa in the state of dissolution (SaÑvaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi-kappa). (c) the kappa in the process of evolution (VivaÔÔa-kappa) and (d) the kappa in the state of evolution (VivaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi-kappa). That is to say, these four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas called SaÑvaÔÔa Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, SaÑvaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi Asaṅkhyeyya- kappa, VivaÔÔa Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa and VivaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa make one Mahǎ- kappa).

Of these four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas, the SaÑvaÔÔa-kappa is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain, which heralds the dissolution of kappa till the extinction of flames, if the kappa is to be dissolved by fire; or till the receding of floods, if the kappa is to be dissolved by water; or till the cessation of storms, if the kappa is to be dissolved by the air element.

The SaÑvaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi-kappa is the period beginning from the moment of dissolution of the world by fire, water or the air element till the falling of the great rain which heralds the evolution of a new world.

The VivaÔÔa-kappa is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain which heralds the evolution of the new world till the appearance of the sun, the moon, and the stars and planets.

The VivaÔÔaÔÔhǎyi-kappa is the period beginning from the appearance of the sun, the moon and the stars and planets to the falling of the great rain which heralds the dissolution of the world.

Thus there are two kinds of kappa-dissolving rain: The first kind is the great rain which falls in any kappa when it is nearing it dissolution either by fire, or by water, or by the air element. first, there is a great downpour of rain all over the universe which is to be dissolved. Then, taking advantage of the rain, people start cultivation. When plants, which are big enough for cattle to feed on, appear, the rain ceases completely. It is rain which heralds the dissolution of a kappa.

The second kind is also a great downpour but it falls when a kappa is to be dissolved by water. It is not an ordinary rain-fall, but a very unusual one, for it has the power to smash even a rocky mountain into smithereens.

(An elaborate description of the dissolution of a kappa by fire, water or the air element is given in the chapter on the Pubbenivǎsǎnussati Abhiññǎ of the Visuddhimagga translation.) The above-mentioned four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas are of the same duration, which cannot be reckoned in terms of years. That is why they are known as Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas (Aeons of Incalculable Length).

These four Asaṅkhyeyya-kappas constitute one Mahǎ-kappa (Great Aeon). The Myanmar word ‘kambhǎ’ is (sometimes) used in the sense of the Pǎli Mahǎ-kappa. The Myanmar language has no separate word for Asaṅkhyeyya-kappa, but it adopts Asaṅkhyeyya-kap as a derivative from Pǎli.

Antara-kappa, etc

At the beginning of the Viνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi Asaukhyeyya-kappa (i.e. the beginning of the world) people live for incalculable (asaukhyeyya) years. As time goes on, they are overcome by such mental defilement as lobha (greed), dosa (anger), etc. and consequently their life span gradually decreases until it becomes only ten years. Such a period of decrease is called Hǎyana-kappa in Pǎli or hsuk-kap or chuk-kap (aeon of decrease) in Myanmar.

On the contrary, owing to the occurrence and uplift of such wholesome principles as sublime states of mind, namely, mettǎ (loving-kindness), etc. the life span of generations of their descendents doubles up gradually until it becomes incalculable years. Such a period of increase in life span from ten years to incalculable years is called Vaddhanap-kappa in Pǎli or tat-kap (aeon of increase) in Myanmar. (for further details of these two periods of increase and decrease in the human life span, refer to Cakkavatti Sutta of the Pǎthika Vagga in the Dīgha Nikǎya.)

Thus, the life span of human beings goes up and down between ten years and incalculable

as they develop meritoriousness or are overcome by their demeritoriousness. A pair of life span, an increasing one and a decreasing one is called an Antara-kappa.

Three Kinds of Antara-kappa

At the beginning of the world, when people’s life span declines from incalculable years to ten years, a change of kappa takes place. If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of greed, then there occurs scarcity of food and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of kappa. Such a round of time is called Dubbhikkhantara-kappa or the aeon of famine.

If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment, then there occurs an epidemic of diseases and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the kappa. Such a round of time is called Rogantara-kappa or the aeon of diseases.

If the decline of life span is due to the particularly overpowering state of hatred, then there occur killings of one another with arms and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the kappa. Such a round of time is called Satthantara-kappa or the aeon of weapons.

(According to the Visuddhi-magga Mahatika, however, the Rogantara-kappa is brought about by the particularly overpowering state of greed, the Satthantara-kappa by the particularly overpowering state of hatred and the Dubbhikkhantara-kappa by the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment; then evil persons perish.)

The naming of each pair of life spans – one increasing and the other decreasing as Antara-kappa may be explained thus: before all is dissolved either by fire, water or the air element at the end of Viνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi-Asaukhyeyya-kappa and whenever the life span becomes ten years, all evil persons are perished with famine, diseases or weapons. In accordance with this statement, here it refers to the intermediate period of decrease between one period of total destruction and another.

After the calamity that befalls during the final seven days of each Antara-kappa, the name Rogantara-kappa, Satthantara-kappa or Dubbhikkhantara-kappa is given to the period of misfortune which befalls before the ten years life span (not in the whole world but) in a limited region such as a town or a village. If there appears an epidemic of diseases, we say there is Rogantara-kappa in that region; if there is an outbreak of war, we say there is Satthantara-kappa in that region; if there occurs starvation, we say there is Dubbhikkhantara-kappa in that region. Such a saying is just figurative because the regional incident is similar to the cosmic. When in prayers, one mentions ‚three kappas‛ from which one wishes to be free, one usually refers to these three great disasters.

At the completion of 64 Antara-kappas (each Antara-kappa consisting of a pair of increasing and decreasing aeons), a Viνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi Asaukhyeyya-kappa comes to an end. Since there are no living beings (in human and celestial realms) during the Saṁνaṭṭa Asaukhyeyya-kappa, Saṁνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi Asaukhyeyya-kappa and Viνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi Asaukhyeyya- kappa, these kappas are not reckoned in terms of Antara-kappa, which consists of a set of increasing and decreasing aeons. But it should be noted that each of these Asaukhyeyya- kappas, lasting as long as 64 Antara-kappas, are of the same duration as a Viνaṭṭaṭṭhǎyi Asaukhyeyya-kappa.

Œyu kappa

Œyu-kappa means a period which is reckoned in accordance with the span of life (ǎyu) of that period. If the life span is one hundred, a century is an Ǎyu-kappa; if it is one thousand, a millennium is an Ǎyu-kappa.

When the Buddha said: ‚Œnanda, I have developed the four Iddhipadas (bases of psychic power). If I so desire, I can live either a whole kappa or a little more than a kappa,‛ the kappa therein should be taken as an Ǎyu-kappa, which is the duration of life of people living in that period. It is explained in the AÔÔhaka Nipǎta of the Aṅguttara Commentary that the Buddha made such a declaration meaning to say that He could live one hundred years on a little more if He so desired.

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Mahǎsiva Thera, however, said: ‚The Ǎyu-kappa here is to be taken as the Mahǎ-kappa called Bhaddaka.‛ (He said so because he held that the kamma, that causes rebirth in the final existence of a Buddha, has the power of prolonging His life span for incalculable years and because it is mentioned in the Pǎli Texts that Ǎyupǎlakaphalasamǎpatti, the fruition-attainment that conditions and controls the life-sustaining mental process called Œyusankhara, can ward off all its dangers.) But the Thera’s view is not accepted by commentators.

The Sanghabhedakkakkhandhaka of the Vinaya C|ḷavagga states: ‚He who causes a schism of the Sangha is reborn in Niraya, realms of continuous suffering, and suffers there for a whole kappa.‛ ‚That kappa is the life span of Avīci, the lowest realm of continuous suffering,‛ explains the Commentary. The life span of Avīci inmates is equal to one eightieth of a Mahǎ-kappa, according to the Terasakaṇďa-Tika, a voluminous Sub- Commentary on the Vinaya. In the same work, it is particularly mentioned that one eightieth of that duration should be reckoned as an Antara-kappa (of Avīci inmates). It, therefore, follows that one Mahǎ-kappa is made up of 80 Antara-kappas according to the reckoning of Avīci inmates.

It may be clarified that, as mentioned above, one Mahǎ-kappa has four Asaukhyeyya- kappas, and one Asaukhyeyya-kappa has 64 Antara-kappa. Therefore, one Mahǎ-kappa is equivalent to 256 Antara-kappa by human calculations.

If 256 is divided by 80, the remainder is 3(1/5) or 3.2. Therefore, 3(1/5) Antara-kappa of human beings make one Antara-kappa Avīci inmates. (In Avīci there is no evolving and dissolving kappas as in the human world. Since it is the place that knows suffering at all times, the end of each dissolving kappa is not marked with the three periods of misfortune. One eightieth of a Mahǎ-kappa which is the life span of Avīci inmates is their Antara- kappa. Therefore by one Antara-kappa of Avīci is meant 3(1/5) Antara-kappa human beings.)

In this way, it may be assumed that one Asaukhyeyya-kappa is equal to 64 Antara-kappas of human beings and 20 Antara-kappas of Avīci inmates. Therefore, when some Pǎli Text (such as the Visuddhi-magga Mahǎ-Tīka, the Abhidhammattha-vibhǎvanī Tīka, etc.) say that one Asaukhyeyya-kappa contains either 64 or 20 Antara-kappas, the figures do not contradict each other. The difference between the numbers (64 and 20) lies only in the manner of calculation. It should be noted that the two are of the same length of time.

A particularly noteworthy thing is a statement in the Sammohavinodanī, the Commentary on the Abhidhamma Vibhanga. In the exposition Nǎna-vibhaṅga, it is said: ‚Only Sanghabhedaka-kamma (the act of causing schism in the Sangha) results in suffering a whole kappa. Should a man, owing to his such act, be reborn in Avīci at the beginning or in the middle of the kappa, he would gain release only when the kappa dissolves. If he were reborn in that realm of suffering today and if the kappa dissolves tomorrow, he should then suffer just one day and would be free tomorrow. (But) there is no such possibility.‛

On account of this statement, there are some who opine that ‚The Sanghabhedaka-kamma leads to Niraya for the whole aeon (in the sense of Mahǎ-kappa); he who commits this kamma gains freedom only when the kappa dissolves. As a matter of fact, the expression

‚kappaṭṭhitiyo‛ (lasting for the whole kappa) is explained in the Vibhaṅga Commentary only in a general manner; it does not emphatically mention the word Maha-kappatthitiyo (lasting for the whole Mahǎ-kappa). The expression kappaṭṭhitiyo is based on a verse in the Vinaya C|lavagga which reads to the effect that ‚having destroyed the unity of the Sangha, one suffers in Niraya for the whole kappa.‛ Therefore, the kappa here should be taken only as Ǎyu-kappa but not Mahǎ-kappa. In the 13^th chapter of the Kathvatthu Commentary, it is said in dealing with kappa that the verse has been composed with reference to Ǎyu- kappa (of Avīci inmates) which is only one eightieth of Mahǎ-kappa.

Divisions of Mahǎ-kappa

Mahǎ-kappa is divided into two classes: (1) Suñña-kappa or Empty Aeon and (2) Asuñña-

kappa or Non-empty Aeon.

Of these two, the aeon in which Buddhas do not appear is Suñña-kappa or Empty Aeon; it means the aeon which is void of a Buddha.

The aeon in which Buddhas appear is Asuñña-kappa or Non-empty aeon; it means the aeon which is not void of a Buddha.

Though Buddhas do not appear in an Empty Aeon, that there can be appearance of Private Buddhas and Universal Monarchs, may be inferred from the Upǎli Thera Sutta in the first Vagga of the Apǎdǎna.

In the Upǎli Thera Sutta and its Commentary, it is said two aeons prior to this one, Prince Khattiya, son of King Aụjasa, on his departure from a park, committed an offence against Paccekabuddha Devīla. No text mentions the appearance of a Buddha in that aeon. In the Commentary on the Bhaddaji Thera Sutta of the Apǎdǎna, too, it is stated that the Thera had given alms-food to five hundred Paccekabuddhas in a Suñña-kappa. It is clear from these texts that Paccekabuddhas appear in Suñña-kappa. Again the Kusumǎsaniya Thera Sutta of the Apǎdǎna mentions that ‚future Kusumǎsaniya was reborn as Universal Monarch Varadassī in the aeon that immediately followed.‛ The Tiṇasanthara Thera Sutta of the same work also says that ‚future Tiṇasanthara Thera was reborn as Universal Monarch Migasammata in the second aeon prior to the present one‛ suggesting that there is the possibility of the appearance of Universal Monarchs in any empty aeon.

The Non-Empty Aeon in which Buddhas appear is divided into five classes:

1. the aeon in which a single Buddha appears is known as Sǎra-kappa,
2. the aeon in which two Buddhas appear is known as Manďa-kappa,
3. the aeon in which three Buddhas appear is known as Vara-kappa,
4. the aeon in which four Buddhas appear is known as Sǎramaṇďa-kappa, and
5. the aeon in which five Buddhas appear is known as Bhaddha-kappa.

The aeon that witnessed the existence of Sumedha, as mentioned in the Chapter on Sumedha the brahmin, is Sǎramaụḍa-kappa because there appear four Buddhas in that aeon. The city of Amaravati came into existence after the appearance of three Buddhas, namely, Taṇkaṅkara, Medhaṅkara, and Saranaṅkara, and before the appearance of Dīpaṅkarǎ.

The Name Amaravatī

Amarǎ means ‚God‛ (immortal being) and νatī means ‚possession‛; hence, the great city which gods possess.

It is stated in the Bhesajjakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahǎvagga and other places that, as soon as the Brahmins Sunidha and Vassakǎra planned to found the city of PǎÔaliputta, gods arrived first and distributed among themselves plots of land. These plots of land occupied by gods of great power became residences of princes, ministers and wealthy persons of high rank; these plots of land occupies by gods of medium power became residences of people of medium rank and these plots of land occupied by gods of little power became residences of people of low rank.

from this statement it may be supposed that gods arrived in hosts to take up residences for themselves and occupied them where a great royal city was to be established. Amaravatī was so named to denote the presence of gods who marked out their own locations in the city and protected them for their habitation.

The Pǎli word ‘νatī’ signifies possession in abundance. In this world, those who have just little wealth are not called wealthy men but those who possess wealth much more than others are called so. Therefore, the name Amaravatī indicates that, as it was a great royal residential city, it was occupied and protected by a large number of highly powerful gods.

Ten Sounds

The BuddhavaÑsa enumerates only six sounds, not all ten. The Mahǎparinibbǎna Sutta of the Mahǎvagga of the Dīgha Nikǎya and the BuddhavaÑsa Commentary enumerates all ten. (This is followed by a comprehensive and critical survey of the ten sounds (dasasadda),

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which come differently in different texts, namely, the BuddhavaÑsa, the Mahǎparinibbǎna Sutta of the Dīgha Nikǎya, BuddhavaÑsa Commentary, the Myanmar and Sri Lankan versions of the Jǎtaka Commentary, and the M|la-Tīkǎ, for the benefit of Pǎli scholars. We have left them out from our translation.)

Chapter IV. The Renunciation of Sumedha The five Defects of A Walkway

1. A walkway that is rough and rugged hurts the feet of one who walks on it; blisters appear. Consequently, meditation cannot be practised with full mental concentration. On the other hand, comfort and ease provided by a soft and even-surfaced walkway is helpful to complete practice of meditation. Roughness and ruggedness therefore is the first defect of a walkway.
2. If there is a tree inside or in the middle or by the side of a walkway, one who walks without due care on that walkway can get hurt on the forehead or on the head by hitting himself against the tree. The presence of a tree is therefore the second defect of a walkway.
3. If a walkway is covered by shrubs and bushes, one who walks on it in the dark can tread on reptiles, etc. and kill them (although unintentionally). The presence of shrubs and bushes, therefore, is the third defect of a walkway.
4. In making a walkway, it is important that it has three lanes. The middle and main one is straight and of 60 cubits in length and one and a half cubit in breath. On either side of it are two smaller lanes, each a cubit wide. Should the middle lane be too narrow, say, only a cubit or half a cubit, there is the possibilities of hurting one’s legs or hands through an accident. Being too narrow, therefore, is the fourth defect of a walkway.
5. Walking on a walkway which is too wide, one may get distracted; one’s mind is not composed then. Being too wide, therefore, is the fifth defect of a walkway.

(Here follows the explanation of the Pǎli word ‘pañcadosa’ as contained in the BuddhavaÑsa Commentary. This is left out from our translation.)

The Eight Comforts of A Recluse

The eight comforts of a recluse (samaụasukha), mentioned here are described as the eight blessings of a recluse (samaụabhadra) in the Sonaka Jǎtaka of the Satthi Nipǎta. The following is the Jǎtaka story in brief:

Once upon a time, the Bodhisatta was reborn as Arindama, son of King Magadha of Rǎjagaha. On the same day was born Sonaka, son of the King’s chief adviser.

The two boys were brought up together and when they came of age, they went to Taxila to study. After finishing their education, they left Taxila together and went on a long tour to acquire a wider and practical knowledge of various arts and crafts and local customs. In due course, they arrived at the royal garden of the King of Bǎrǎṇasī and entered the city the following day.

On that very day, the festival of Veda recitations known as Brǎhmaṇavǎcaka was to be held and milk-rice was prepared and seats were arranged for the occasion. On entering the city, Prince Arindama and his friend were invited into a house and given seats. Seeing that the seat for the prince was covered with a white cloth while that for him was covered with red cloth, Sonaka knew from that omen that ‚Today, my friend Arindama will become King of Bǎrǎṇasī and I will be appointed general.‛

After the meal, the two friends went back to the royal garden. It was the seventh day after the King’s demise, and ministers were looking for a person who was worthy of kingship by sending the state chariot in search of him. The chariot left the city, made its way to the garden and stopped at the entrance. At that moment, Prince Arindama was lying asleep on an auspicious stone couch with his head covered and Sonaka was sitting near him. As soon as Sonaka heard the sound of music, he thought to himself: ‚The state chariot has come for Arindama. Today, he will become King and give me the post of his

Commander-in-Chief. I do not really want to have such a position. When Arindama leaves the garden, I will renounce the world to become an ascetic,‛ and he went to a corner and hid himself.

The chief adviser and ministers of Bǎrǎṇasī anointed Prince Arindama, King, even on the very stone couch and with great ceremonial pomp and grandeur took him into the city. Thus Prince Arindama became King of Bǎrǎṇasī. Lost in the sudden turn of events and attended upon by a large numbers of courtiers and retinue, he totally forgot his friend Sonaka.

When King Arindama had left for the city, Sonaka appeared from his hiding place and sat on the stone couch. At that time, he saw a dry leaf of sǎla (shores robusta) falling right in front of him and he contemplated: ‚Like this sǎla leaf, my body will certainly decay and oppressed by old age, I will definitely die and fall to the ground.‛ With his religious emotion thus aroused, he at once engaged himself in Vipassanǎ meditation, and, at the very sitting, there arose in him the enlightenment of a Paccekabuddha, and he became a Paccekabuddha himself. His lay appearance vanished and he assumed a new appearance of an ascetic. Making an utterance of joy: ‚Now I have no more rebirth!‛ he went to the cave of Nandam|laka.

Prince Arindama, on the other hand, remained intoxicated with kingly pleasures. Only after some forty years, he suddenly remembered his childhood friend. Then, he yearned to see him and wondering where he would be staying then. But, receiving no news or clues about his friend’s whereabouts, he uttered repeatedly the following verse:

‚Whom shall I give a hundred coins for hearing and bringing me good news about Sonaka? Whom shall I give a thousand coins for seeing Sonaka in person and telling me how to meet him? Who, whether young or old, would come and inform me of my friend Sonaka, my playmate with whom I had played in the dust?‛

People heard the song and everybody sang the same, believing it to be his favourite. After 50 years, a number of children had been born to the King, the eldest one being

Dīghǎvu. At that time, Paccekabuddha Soṇaka thought to himself thus: ‚King Arindama is wanting to see me. I will go to him and shower upon him the gift of thought-provoking sermons on the disadvantages of sensuality and the advantages of renunciation so that he would incline to lead an ascetic life.‛ Accordingly, He by His psychic power, appeared in the royal gardens. Having heard a boy singing repeatedly the aforementioned song of King Arindama while chopping wood, the Paccekabuddha taught him a verse in response to the King’s.

The boy went to the King and recited the responding song, which gave the clue of his friend’s whereabouts. Then, the King marched in military procession to the garden and paid respect to the Paccekabuddha. But, being a man of worldly pleasures, the King looked down upon Him and said: ‚What a destitute you are, living a wretched lonely life as this.‛ The Paccekabuddha rejected the King’s censure by replying: ‚Never is he a destitute who enjoys the bliss of the Dhamma! Only he who dissociates himself from the Dhamma and practises what is not righteous is a destitute! Besides, he is evil himself and forms a refuge for other evil person.‛

Then he informed the Paccekabuddha that his name was Arindama and that he was known by all as a King of Bǎrǎṇasī, and asked if the holy man was living a happy life.

Then the Paccekabuddha uttered the eight verses in praise of the eight blessings of a recluse (samanabhadra):

1. Great King, a recluse, who has gone forth from a household life to a homeless state and who is free of the worries of wealth, feels happy at all places and at all times (not only in your gardens and at this moment). Great King, such a recluse does not have to keep grain in stores or in jars (unlike lay people who do the hoarding and whose greed grows for a long time). A recluse lives on food prepared in donor’s homes and obtained by going on alms-round; he partakes of such food with due contemplation. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from non-hoarding of wealth and grain.)

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2. [There are two kinds of blameworthy food (saνajapinda). As mentioned in the Vinaya, the first kind is the food obtained by one of the improper means, such as by healing the sick and so on, or by one of the five wrong manners of livelihood. The other blameworthy kind is food taken without due contemplation although the food may have been properly obtained.]

Great King, a noble recluse duly contemplates while eating the food that has been obtained blamelessly. He who has thus blamelessly eaten his blameless food is not oppressed by any form of sensuality. freedom from oppression by sensuality is the second blessing of a recluse who has neither wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from seeking and taking of blameless food.)

3. (The food that has been sought properly and eaten with due contemplation by a worldling may be called ‚peaceful food‛ (nibbutapinda), that is to say, the food that does not incite craving. In reality, however, only an arahat’s food is ‚peaceful‛ i.e. it does not incite craving.)

Great King, a noble recluse takes peaceful food only. He is thus not oppressed by any form of sensuality. freedom from oppression by sensuality is the third blessing of a recluse who has no wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from taking peacefully food only.)

4. Great King, a noble recluse, who goes on alms-round in towns or villages without attachment to donors of requisites, does not adhere to greed and hatred. (Clinging wrongly to sense object in the manner of a thorn is called dosasauga, faulty adherence.) freedom from such clinging is the fourth blessing of a recluse who has no wants nor worries. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from non- attachment to male or female donor and from non-association with them.)
5. Great King, a recluse, who has extra requisites which are not used by him, entrust them to a donor for security. Later on when he hears such (and such) a donor’s house has been gutted by fire, he is greatly distressed and has no peace of mind. On the other hand, another recluse has only those requisites that are on his body or that he carries along with him, just like the wings of a bird that go with it wherever it flies. He suffers no loss when a town or a village is destroyed by fire. Immunity from loss of requisites through fire is the fifth blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from not being victimised by fire.)
6. Great King, when a town or a village is plundered by robbers, a recluse, who like Me wears or carries along his requisites, loses nothing (while others who have extra requisites suffer loss through plundering by robbers and know no peace of mind). Freedom from the trouble of looking after one’s possessions is the sixth blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from feeling secure against robbers.)
7. Great King, a recluse, who has only the eight requisites as his possession, moves freely without being stopped, interrogated or arrested on the road where robbers waylay or security officers patrol. This is the seventh blessing of a recluse. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from harmless travelling on the road where robbers or security men are waiting.)
8. Great King, a recluse, who has only the eight requisites as his possession, can go wherever he likes without taking a long look back (at his old place). Such possibility of moving is the eighth blessing of a recluse who has no possessions. (By this is explained the comfort that comes from freely going about without yearning for his old place.)

King Arindama interrupted Paccekabuddha Soṇaka’s sermon on the blessings of a recluse and asked: ‚Though you are speaking in praise of the blessings of a recluse, I cannot appreciate them as I am always in pursuit of pleasures. Sensual pleasures, both human and divine, I cherish. In what way can I gain human and divine existence?‛ Paccekabuddha Soṇaka replied that those who relish sensuality are destined to be reborn in unhappy

abodes, and only those who abandon it are not destined to be reborn there. By way of an illustration, He told the story of a crow that joyously rode on a dead elephant floating into the ocean and lost its life. Paccekabuddha then spoke of the blemishes of sensual pleasures and departed, travelling through space.

Being immensely moved by religious emotion as a result of the Paccekabuddha’s exhortation, King Arindama handed over kingship to his son Dighavu and left for the Himalayas. After becoming a recluse, living on fruit and cultivating and developing jhǎna through meditation on the four sublime modes of living (Brahmaνihǎra-mettǎ, karuụǎ, muditǎ and upekkhǎ) he was reborn in the Brahmǎ realm.

The Nine Disadvantages of A Layman’s Dress

They are:

1. 1. Costliness of the garment.
   2. Availability only through connection with its maker.
   3. Getting soiled easily when used.
   4. Getting worn out and tattered easily owing to frequent washing and dyeing.
   5. Difficult in seeking a replacement for the old one.
   6. Being unsuitable for a recluse.
   7. Having to guard against loss through theft.
   8. Appearing to be ostentatious when put on.
   9. When taken along without being worn, it is burdensome and makes one appear to be avaricious.

The Twelve Advantages of The fibre-robe

They are:

1. Being inexpensive but of fine quality.
2. Possibility of making it by oneself.
3. Not getting easily soiled when used and being easily cleaned.
4. Easily discarded, when worn out without a need for stitching and mending.
5. Having no difficulty in seeking a replacement for the old one.
6. Being suitable for a recluse.
7. Not having to guard against loss through theft.
8. Not appearing to be ostentatious when put on.
9. Not burdensome when taken along or put on.
10. forming no attachment to the robe as a requisite for the user.
11. Made just by beating the bark from a tree; thus it is righteously and faultlessly gained.
12. Not being worthy of regret over its loss or destruction.

The fibre-robe

The fibre-robe means the robe made of fibre, which is obtained from a kind of grass and fastened together. (This is described in the AÔÔhasǎlinī.)

According to the Hsutaunggan Pyo, fastening the fibres together itself is not the complete making of such garment. It must be beaten so as to make it soft and smooth. That is why it is called ‚beaten fibre‛ in Myanmar.

The ‚fibre-robe‛ has the name νǎkacīra, νakkala, and tirīṭaka in Pǎli.

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Vǎkacīra literally means ‚a robe made of grass‛, and, therefore, it should actually be translated ‚grass-robe‛. But traditional teachers translate the word as ‚fibre-robe‛.

The remaining two names, νakkala and tirītaka, refer to a robe made of fibres that come from the bark of a tree. Though the word νakka of νakkala means ‚bark of a tree‛, it does not denote pure, thick, outer crust of the bark, but the inner layers made up of fibres covering the wood-core. It should be noted that, because such fibres are taken off, fastened and beaten for softness and smoothness, the robe made thus is called fibre-robe. Though νǎkacīra has the meaning of ‚grass-robe‛, the process of making the robe out of fibres taken off from trees is more common than that of making it out of grass and the name

‚fibre-robe‛ is better known that ‚grass-robes‛. That is why the word ‚fibre-robe‛ is adopted in the Hsutaunggan Pyo.

The Wooden Tripod

The wooden tripod (tidaụda or tayosǔlī) is a requisite of a hermit. It is a stand with three legs, on which is placed a water jug or pot.

The Water Jug and The Yoke

The water jug (kuụḍikǎ) is another requisite of a hermit. Khǎrikǎja meaning a yoke, is taken by traditional teachers as a combination of khǎri and kǎja, both meaning the same: a pole which is curved. According to some, Khǎri means a hermit’s set of requisites, which consists of a flint, a needle, a fan, etc. Taking these interpretations together, khǎrikǎja may be taken as the pole on which are hung various requisites of a hermit.

The Hide of A Black Antelope (Ajinacamma)

The hide of a black antelope, complete with hoofs, called ajinacamma is also one of the requisites of a hermit, which may be elaborated somewhat as follows:

The Pǎli ajinacamma has been unanimously translated ‚the hide of a black antelope‛ by ancient scholars. It is generally thought, therefore, that a beast which is black all over its body is called a ‚black antelope‛. In the Amarakosa Abhidhǎna (section 17 v, 47) the word,

‚Ajina‛ is explained as ‚hide‛ synonymous with camma. This explanation of the

Amarakosa is worthy of note.

In the Atthasǎlinī and other commentaries, there is an expression meaning ‚the hide, complete with hoofs, of a black antelope, which was like a bed of punnǎga flowers‛. The phrase ‚complete with hoofs‛ (sakhuraṁ) indicates that it is the hide of a hoofed animal. When it is said to be ‚like a bed of punnǎga flowers‛, we have to decide whether the likeness to a bed of punnǎga flowers refers to its colour or to its softness. That the punnǎga flowers is not particularly softer than other flowers is known to many. Therefore, it should be decided that the likeness refers to its colour. This suggests then that the hide could not be that of a black antelope.

Though ajina is translated ‚black leopard‛ by scholars of old, that it actually means an animal’s coat and is synonymous with camma is evident from such statement as ‚ajinamhi haññate dīpi,‛ (‚a leopard is killed for its coat,‛) in the Janaka and Suvaṇṇasǎma Jǎtakas. The Commentary on the Janaka also explains ajina to be a synonym of camma by saying

‚ajinamhīti cammatthaya cammkaraụǎ – for its coat mean for obtaining its hide‛). There are only two words, dīpi and saddǔla, in Pǎli meaning leopard. Ajina in not found in that sense.

The BuddhavaÑsa Text also says, ‚kese muñcitνǎ’ham tattha νǎkacīrañ ca cammakam‛. When Sumedha lay prostrate before Buddha Dīpaṅkarǎ, offering himself as a bridge, he loosened his hair-knot and spread his fibre-robe and the animal hide on the bog. The Pǎli word used here is cammaka which is the same as ajinacamma discussed above.

All these point to the fact that ajinacamma is not the coat of a beast with claws like a tiger, a leopard or a cat and the adjectival phrase ‚complete with hoofs‛ shows that it is the coat of an animal with hoofs like that of cattle or horses. The coat has the colour of a bed of punnǎga flowers as mentioned in the AÔÔhasǎlinī. It is also very soft to the touch.

Such animals like eṇī are found in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas. Because its coat is smooth and very beautiful and not easily available, people treasure it as a symbol of auspiciousness.

When Bodhisatta Siddhattha was born, the Cǎtumahǎrǎjika devas of the four quarters, received him from the hands of the saintly Brahmǎs of the Suddhǎvǎsa abode with a coat of this particular animal, i.e. the coat having a soft fur and commonly regarded to be auspicious. This is mentioned in the introduction of the Jǎtaka Commentary and in the BuddhavaÑsa Commentary as well.

(The author then acknowledges that all that has been discussed regarding the translation of ajinacamma as the hide of a black antelope is the view of the great scholar U Lin, the previous compiler of The Great Chronicle of Buddhas.)

Matted Hair (JaÔǎ) and Round Head-dress made of Hair (Jatǎmaṇďala)

The difference between the matted hair and the round head-dress made of hair should be understood. The matted hair is something that is a part of the hermit. In order to save the trouble of keeping it well groomed, the hermit knotted his hair firmly and tightly. This is what is meant by ‚matted hair‛.

One of the requisites created and left in the hut by Visukamma as mentioned in the AÔÔhasǎlinī is the round head-dress made of hair called jatamaụḍala. This is a thing separate from the hermit’s person. It is not a part of him. From the sentence: ‚He put the head-dress on his topknot and fastened it with an ivory hairpin‛, it is clear that the head- dress is a thing separate from Sumedha’s hair-knot. It evolved into a hermit’s head-dress of later times and protects the hair from dust and litter.

(The author here mentions the opinions of the Monyway Zetawun Sayadaw and MahǎsilavaÑsa who stated that the ‚matted hair‛ and ‚head-dress‛ are the same thing. But the author concludes his discussion by quoting the Catudhammasǎra (Kogan) Pyo, Magadha Abhidhǎna, and certain Jǎtaka stories which say that they are two different things. By quoting the Catudhammasǎra Pyo and the Maghadeva Laṅka, the author finally says that just as a snare is used to catch a bird, so also the matted hair in the form of a snare is worn by a hermit to catch the great bird of

‚the Eightfold Noble Path‛ as soon as it alights in the forest that is ‚his mind‛.

Eight Kinds of Hermits

(The author first explains the derivation of the Myanmar word (hermit) from Pǎli and Sanskrit.)

The word ‚hermit‛ refers to those who are outside the Buddha’s Teaching. Nevertheless, they should be regarded as holy persons of the time.

The commentary on the Ambattha Sutta of the Sīlakkhanda Vagga enumerates eight kinds of hermits as follow:

1. Saputtabhariya. A hermit who piles up wealth and lives a house-holder’s life. (Here the author mentions Keṇiya of the Buddha’s lifetime as an example.)
2. Uụchǎcariya. A hermit who does not pile up wealth and who does not live a householder’s life, but who collects unhusked grain from lay people at threshing grounds and cook his own food.
3. Anaggipakkika. A hermit who collects husked grain from lay men in villages and cooks his own food. He thinks husking grain by pounding is not worthy of one who lives a hermit’s life.
4. Asǎmapǎka. A hermit who enters a village and collects cooked rice. He thinks cooking is not worthy of one who lives a hermit’s life.
5. AyamuÔÔhika (AsmamuÔÔhika). A hermit who takes off the bark of a tree for food by means of a metal or stone implement. He thinks to collect food each day is wearisome.
6. Dantavakkalika. A hermit who takes off the bark of a tree with his teeth for food. He thinks to carry metal or stone implements is wearisome.

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7. Pavattaphalabhojana. A hermit who lives on the fruits that fall by throwing stone or a stick at them. He thinks to remove the bark is wearisome.
8. Pandupalasika. A hermit who lives only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall naturally from trees.

The Paṇďupalǎsika are divided into three types:

1. 1. UkkaÔÔha-paṇďupalǎsika, he who remains seated without arising and who lives on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall within his reach.
   2. MajjhuÑ-paṇďupalǎsika, he who moves from tree to tree and subsists only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall from a single tree.
   3. MuduÑ-paṇďupalǎsika, he who moves from tree to tree in search of leaves, flowers and fruits that fall naturally from trees, to maintain himself.

This is the enumeration of the eight kinds of hermits as given in the commentary on the AmbaÔÔha Sutta.

In addition, the author gives a somewhat different enumeration that is mentioned in the commentary on the Hirī Sutta of the Sutta Nipǎta:

1. Saputtabhariya. A hermit who leads a householder’s life earning his living by farming, trading, etc., like Keṇiya and others.
2. Uụchǎcarika. A hermit who, living near a city gate and teaching children of Khattiya and brahmin families, accepts only grain and crops but not gold and silver.
3. Sampattakǎlika. A hermit who lives only on food that is obtained at the meal time.
4. Anaggipakka. A hermit who lives only on uncooked fruits and vegetables.
5. AyamuÔÔhika. A hermit who wanders from place to place with metal or stone implements in hand to remove the bark from trees for food whenever he feels hungry and who observes precepts, and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.
6. Dantal|yyaka. A hermit who wanders from place to place without metal or stone implements in hand and who removes the bark from trees with his teeth whenever he feels hungry and who observes precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.
7. Pavattaphalika. A hermit who lives depending upon a natural pond or a forest and who, going nowhere else, subsists on the lotus stems and stalks from the pond or on the fruits and flowers from the forest grove or even on the bark of trees (when other kinds of sustenance are not available) and who observes precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.
8. VaṇÔamuttika. A hermit who subsists on leaves that fall naturally and observes precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.

In these two lists of eight kinds of hermits, each type is nobler than the preceding type. Again in these lists, excepting the first type, namely, Saputtabhariya, all are holy persons,

observing precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.

Sumedha came under the fourth category (of the list given in the Sīlakkhanda Commentary), namely, Asamapaka, for one day, i.e. a hermit who collects and lives only on cooked food; for the following days, he remained as a hermit of the eighth type, namely, Paṇďupalǎsika, one who lives only on leaves, flowers and fruits that fall naturally from trees. According to the list given in the Sutta Nipǎta Commentary, he came under the eight category, namely, VaṇÔamuttika, i.e. a hermit who subsists only on leaves that fall naturally from trees and who observes precepts and cultivating meditation on the four sublime illimitables.

Three Kinds of Persons addressed as ‚Shin¹‛ in Myanmar

The Pǎli ‚pabbajjǎ‛ has been translated ‚going forth as a recluse‛ by teachers of old.

1. A respectful religious title, more or less equivalent to Pǎli Sǎmi.

That is to say ‚giving up a worldly life‛, which is of three kinds:

1. 1. Isi-pabbajjǎ, giving up of worldly life and becoming an isi (hermit).
   2. Samana-pabbajjǎ, giving up of worldly life and becoming a samaụa (monk).
   3. Sǎmaṇera-pabbajjǎ, giving up of worldly life and becoming a sǎmaụera (novice). Accordingly, there are three kinds of persons worthy of veneration and addressed as

‚shin‛ in Myanmar. They are isi (hermit), samaụa (monk) and sǎmaụera (novices).

The Eight Disadvantage of A Leaf-hut

1. The hut requires the dweller to make efforts to acquire timber and other materials for its construction.
2. It requires the dweller to take constant care and to provide maintenance or reconstruction when the grass roof and mud of the walls decay and fall into ruins.
3. It requires the dweller to make room at any time for a visiting senior elder, who is entitled to suitable accommodation, so that he fails to get concentration of mind.
4. Being sheltered from sun and rain under its cover, the dweller tends to become soft and feeble.
5. With a roof and surrounding walls to provide privacy, it serves the dweller as a hiding place for committing blameworthy, evil deeds.
6. It creates attachment for the dweller, who then thinks: ‚It is my dwelling place.‛
7. Settling down in it makes the dweller appear to be living a householder’s life with family.
8. It requires the dweller to deal with nuisance created by domestic pests, such as fleas, bugs, lizards, etc.

These are the disadvantages of a leaf-hut which Sumedha discerned and which prompted him to abandon the hut.

The Ten Advantages of The foot of A Tree

1. The foot of a tree does not require the dweller to acquire building materials because it is already a dwelling place provided by nature.
2. It does not require the dweller to take constant care and to provide maintenance.
3. It does not require the dweller to make room for visiting senior elders.
4. It does not provide privacy nor serves the dweller as a hiding place for committing evil deeds.
5. Its dweller is free from stiffness of limbs unlike those dwelling in the open space who suffers from such a discomfort.
6. The dweller does not have to take possession of it as his own property.
7. The dweller is able to abandon it without an attachment saying: ‚It is my dwelling place.‛
8. The dweller does not have to request others to vacate the place for purpose of cleaning.
9. It makes a pleasant place for the dweller.
10. Since the dweller can easily finds similar dwelling places wherever he goes, he does not cling to it as ‚my dwelling place‛.

(Then the author quotes the Hsutaunggan Pyo which gives the same list of disadvantages in verse.)

Chapter V. The Prophecy

As has been said, Sumedha reflected: ‚What is the use of selfishly escaping the cycle of births alone,‛ and this is mentioned in the BuddhavaÑsa Text: ‚Kim me ekena tinnena‛.

Quoting this Pǎli sentence people are fond of saying with a tinge of contempt: ‚One

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should not be selfish in this world. A selfish one is a person who seeks only his good. One who seeks only his welfare is a useless person.‛

But, if one continues to read the same sentence, one would come across ‚purisena thamadassina‛, implying, ‚in spite of the fact that I am a superior person, fully aware of my prowess of wisdom, faith and energy‛, which explicitly qualifies the foregoing sentence. All this indicates that only those who, despite their ability, are selfish and not willing to work for others should be blamed. And those, who have no such ability but who say: ‚I will work for others‛ and are not true to their words, should be despised, for they do not know the limits of their own capability.

As a matter of fact, those, who have no ability to work for others, should look after their own interest. That is why it is taught in the atta-νagga, the twentieth chapter of the Dhammapada:

Attadatthaṁ paratthena bahunǎ’ pi na hǎpaye attadattham abhiññǎya sadatthapasuto siyǎ.

Let him not sacrifice his own interest by willing to work much for others.

Knowing full well his own limited ability he should work for his own welfare.

This teaching of the Dhammapada means: ‚He, who is incompetent to work for others but speaks as though he were competent, cannot do good for other, nor can he do for himself; thus he suffers a double loss. Therefore, he, who is incompetent to work for others, should seek his own good and work only for himself. He, who knows the true extent of his own capability and works only for himself (should not be blamed as a selfish person but), should be spoken of as a good person who works within the limits of his capability. On the contrary, he, who is qualified like Sumedha to render service to others, runs only after his own interest, ignoring others’ should truly be censure as a purely selfish person.

In short, let him work for others, if he is competent. If not, let him look after himself so that he may not miss his interest. He, who seeks his own interest but pretends to be working for others’ welfare, is surely a dishonest, cunning, evil person.‛

Nerañjarǎ

Nerañjarǎ, as the name of a river, is derived from nelajala, ‘nela’ meaning ‘faultless’ and ‘jala’, ‘water’; hence ‘the river with pure clean water’.

Another derivation is from ‘nīlajala’, ‘nīla’ meaning ‘blue’ and ‘jala’, ‘water’. ‘Blue water’ signifies ‘clear water’. Hence, ‘the river with clear blue water’.

Yet another derivation is from ‘nari jarǎ’ meaning a kind of musical instrument which produces the sound similar to that of the flowing waters in a stream.

Notes on Prophecy

Under the heading, the author discusses not only the Myanmar word for prophecy but also other Myanmar words or phrases. The word prophecy in Myanmar language, is commonly held to be derived from the so called Pǎli word ‘byǎdita’. But there is no such word as ‘byǎdita’ in Pǎli. It appears to have been formed by ancient scholars in imitation of the Pǎli words, ‘byǎkaraṇa’ or ‘byǎkata’, says the author.

With reference to the phrases ‘stepping out with his right foot’ and ‘honouring him with eight handfuls of flowers’, the author has the following to say:

‘Stepping out with his right foot’ is the translation of the Pǎli phrase dakkhiụam pǎdam uddhari. Buddha Dīpaṅkarǎ departed not only stepping out with his right foot first but also keeping Sumedha on his right. This mode of departure from the presence of an honourable person is a very ancient Indian custom of showing high esteem.

‚Honouring him with eight handfuls of flowers‛ in Pǎli is aṭṭahi pupphamuṭṭīhi pujetνǎ which occurs in the Jǎtaka Commentary and the BuddhavaÑsa Commentary. Over this phrase there has been a controversy whether a living Buddha should pay respect to a Bodhisatta who would become a Buddha only many aeons later. Even if one argues that Buddha Dīpaṅkarǎ was paying homage not to the person of Sumedha the Hermit but only to the Sabbaññuta-ñǎụa (Supreme Wisdom), that he would attain, this argument also is unacceptable as it is inappropriate that the present possessor of Omniscience should pay respect to the Omniscience yet to be attained by a Bodhisatta.

The whole controversy rests on the translation of the word pǔjetνǎ which is connected with pǔjǎ. The Khuddaka-pǎtha Commentary explains that pǔjǎ means sakkǎra (treating well), mǎnana (holding in esteem) and νandanǎ (salutation, homage, or obeisance). The author gives his view that in honouring Hermit Sumedha with eight handfuls of flowers, the Buddha was not saluting or paying homage or obeisance (νandanǎ), but He was merely giving good treatment (sakkǎra) to Sumedha and showing the high esteem (mǎnana) in which He held him.

The text mentions the prophetic phenomenon which took place on the day the planet Visǎkhǎ conjoined with the full moon. That day is reckoned in the Myanmar Calendar as full-moon day of Kason (April-May). The day is regarded usually to be auspicious being the full-moon day of the first month of the year.

All the previous Buddhas received their prophecies of becoming a Buddha on the full- moon day of Kason. So when Sumedha received the prophecy on the same auspicious day, devas and Brahmas were quite positive in their proclamation that Sumedha would definitely become a Buddha.

The author further mentions that, the full-moon day of Kason is not only the day on which the prophecy was received but also the day on which Bodhisattas took their last birth in the human world; it is also the day on which they attained Perfect Self-Enlightenment and the day on which they passed away into Nibbǎna.

The full-moon of Kason is so auspicious in the traditional customs of Myanmar that kings of the past have had themselves anointed and crowned on this particular day.

Devas proclaimed 32 Prophetic Phenomena

These thirty-two prophetic phenomena occurred on the day Sumedha received the Prophecy. These phenomena were different from those that took place on the days of Buddha’s Conception, Birth, Enlightenment and Teaching the First Sermon. They will be dealt with in the chapter on Gotama BuddhavaÑsa.

Notes on Prophetic Phenomena

‘Prophetic phenomena’ is the rendering into English of the Pǎli word nimitta, ‘nimit’ in Myanmar which means a phenomenon foretelling a good or evil event that is likely to take place.

The author then gives a mine of information on the Myanmar synonyms, quoting various sources from Myanmar literature. We have left them out from our translation.

End of Anudīpanī on the Prophecy.

Chapter VI. On Pǎramitǎ

(a) The Perfection of Generosity or Generous Offering (Dǎna-Pǎramī)

With regard to the Perfection of Generosity, it is clearly stated in the Pǎli Canon concerning the Chronicle of Buddhas that the Bodhisatta Sumedha admonished himself to start forth with the practice of Perfection of Generosity since the Bodhisattas of the past had done so. It is clearly seen, therefore, that amongst the Ten Perfections, Perfection of giving of offering or generosity demands the highest priority for fulfilment.

But, in the Sangǎthǎ Vagga of the SaÑyutta Nikǎya, we find the verse, ‚Sīle patiṭṭhǎya naro sapañño .....‛ in which the Buddha explains that when a person of mature wisdom,

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born with three root-conditions², well established in morality, ardently develops concentration and insight wisdom, he can unravel the tangled network of craving. Here, the Buddha mentions only the three trainings, viz. Morality (sīla), Concentration (samǎdhi) and Insight Wisdom (paññǎ); there is not even a hint about the practice of Generosity.

furthermore, as the Visuddhi-magga (The Path of Purification) Commentary which is the expository treatise on the single verse of Sagǎthǎvagga SaÑyutta quoted above does not touch upon the subject of Generosity and as the Noble Path of Eight Constituents which leads to Nibbǎna includes the paths concerning morality, concentration and wisdom only, and there is no path including generosity, some people misconstrue that generosity is not regarded by the Buddha as essential, that it is not conducive to attainment of Nibbǎna, that it generates more rebirths in the cycle of existence and as such generosity should not be cultivated.

The well-known Minister of King Mindon, U Hlaing of Yaw, went so far as to write in his book, ‘The Taste of Liberation’ (Vimuttirasa) that the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people such as the rich man’s son, Siñgǎla.

There are many Buddhists who are offended by such observation as ‘generosity should not be cultivated’ and who are indignant at Yaw minister’s writing that ‘the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people’. But mere dislike of such views and indignation with them serves no purposes. What is more important and helpful to oneself is to understand correctly what the Buddha means by His Teaching.

Concerning the aforesaid verse of the Sagǎthǎvagga SaÑyutta, what one should understand as the true meaning of the Buddha’s discourse is as follows: This discourse was taught by the Buddha for the benefit of those superior persons who are capable of striving hard for complete eradication of defilements, for the attainment of arahatship in the present life, with no more rebirth. If such a superior person actually strives hard for the attainment of arahatship in this very life and if, as a consequence of his strenuous efforts, he becomes an arahat, there is no need for him to set up a new life. Generosity is an act which generates new life, new pleasures; for the person who will break the circle of the existence in this very life, there will be no more rebirths. Since there will be no new life for him to reap the benefits of generosity, acts of giving by him are unnecessary. That is why the Buddha, for the benefit of superior persons, dwells in this discourse of the SaÑyutta mainly on morality, concentration and insight wisdom which are more important than generosity for the purpose of eradication of the defilements. The Buddha does not say at all that generosity should not be cultivated.

Generosity has the quality of making the mind and heart pliable. When someone makes a generous offer of some gift, the very act of giving serves as a decisive support³ to make the mind more pliable and ready for observance of precepts, for cultivation of concentration and for development of insight wisdom through practice of Vipassanǎ meditation. It is within the experience of every Buddhist, that a feeling of awkwardness and embarrassment arises in him whenever he visits, without an offering, monasteries or temples for the purpose of keeping precepts, of listening to Dhamma talks or for the practice of meditation. Therefore, it was customary for the noble disciples like Visǎkhǎ to bring an offering, such as rice, sweets or fruits in the morning and beverages and medicinal preparations in the evening, whenever she visited the Buddha.

Everyone, who does not become an arahat in this life, will go through more rounds in the cycle of existence. In doing so, it will be difficult for them to attain favourable states of existence without practising generosity in the present life. Even if they happen to gain a good rebirth, they will find themselves lacking in material possessions, without which they cannot do meritorious deeds. (In such a case, it may be argued that they could devote themselves to the practice of morality, concentration and insight wisdom. But this is easier

2. Three root-conditions (Tihetu-patisandhika) - a being whose conciousness of the moment of rebirth is accompanied by three root-conditons of greedlessness, hatelessness, undeludedness.
3. Upanissaya-Paccaya: life immediate support.

said than done. Indeed, it is only with the support of the beneficial results of past acts of generosity that the three training of morality, concentration and insight wisdom can be cultivated successfully.) Therefore, it is most important for those who still have to go on this long journey of saṁsǎra (the cycle of existence), to cultivate generosity. Only when one is equipped with ‘provisions for the long journey’, namely, generosity, then only one can reach good destination; and while there, possessing material wealth as the fruits of generosity of past lives, one can devote oneself to the pursuit of whatever meritorious deeds one wishes to.

Among the travellers in the round of this cycle of saṁsǎra, Bodhisattas are the greatest individuals. Among receiving a definite prophecy from a Buddha of his gaining Buddhahood, a Bodhisatta continues to fulfil the Perfections for the attainment of Omniscience (sabbaññuta-ñǎụa) for four incalculable world-cycles plus a hundred thousand aeons. A Paccekabuddha, i.e. a non-teaching Buddha, had to fulfil His Perfections for two incalculable world-cycles plus a hundred thousand aeons; an agga-sǎνaka, a Chief Disciple of a Buddha, for one incalculable world-cycle plus a hundred thousand aeons; and a mahǎ-sǎνaka, one of the Leading Disciples, for one hundred thousand world-cycles. Therefore, for Bodhisattas, who are great travellers on the long journey of saṁsǎra, Perfection of Generosity is of primary importance and as such, a place of prominence is given to steadfast fulfilment of the Perfection of Generosity in the Pǎli Text concerning the Chronicle of the Buddhas.

Thus, as the discourse in the SaÑyutta Pǎli, mentioned above, was addressed to individuals who are ripe for attainment of arahatship, those, who have not yet fulfilled the Perfections, should not say that Perfection of Generosity is not essential.

Those are some who ask if it is possible to attain Nibbǎna by practising only generosity. It may be replied that, practising only one Perfection by itself, neither generosity, nor morality, nor meditation will result in attainment of Nibbǎna. for practising generosity alone implies that it is not accompanied by morality nor by meditation. Similarly, practising meditation alone means that it is practised without the support of morality and generosity. When not restrained by morality, one is liable to indulge in evil acts. If such a person of evil habits attempts to practise meditation, his efforts will be futile like a good seed which, when put on red-hot iron, does not produce a sprout but turns to ashes. Thus, it should be noted that it is improper to speak of ‘practising generosity alone.’

In the chapter on generosity in the Chronicle of the Buddhas, it is clearly stated that alms should be given irrespective of the recipient’s status, whether high, medium or low. In view of such a firm statement, it is neither desirable nor necessary to pick and choose the recipient when one makes an offering.

But in the Dakkhiṇǎvibhaṅga Sutta of the Uparipaṇṇǎsa, Majjhima Nikǎya, the Buddha taught seven kinds of gifts to be made to Sangha, the Community of Bhikkhus, and fourteen kinds of gift to be made to individual recipients. It is pointed out with regard to fourteen kinds of gifts made to individual recipients, the merit gained increases according to the recipient going up from the lowliest animals to the highest beings; the most meritorious gift is, of course, that made to the Community of Bhikkhus.

Again in the Ankura Peta story of Peta Vatthu, we find the story of two devas. When the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma while being seated on the Sakka’s throne in the abode of TǎvatiÑsa, two devas, Indaka and Ankura, went to listen to the discourse. Whenever powerful devas arrived, Ankura had to make way for them and move back until he was ten yojanas away from the Buddha.

But Indaka remained in his seat; he did not have to move. The reason is as follows: At the time when the life span was ten thousand years, Ankura was a human being and was very rich. Throughout that life he made offerings of meals to large numbers of ordinary people, cooking the meals on fireplaces which stretched for twelve yojanas. Because of the merit gained, he had taken rebirth as a deva. Indaka, however became a deva because he had offered a spoonful of rice to Arahat Anuruddha.

Although the offering Indaka had made was just a spoonful of rice, the recipient was an

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arahat and the merit he thus acquired was great and noble. Thus, as an equal of the powerful devas, he did not have to make way for them. On the other hand, although Ankura had made large amounts of gifts over a very long period of time, the recipients were worldlings and consequently the beneficial result that accrued was not a high order. And he had to move back every time a powerful deva arrived. Therefore, we find in the Pǎli text the exhortation: ‘Viceyya danam databbam yattha dinnam mahapphalam’ which means ‘When an offering is to be made, one who can bring the greatest benefit should be chosen as the recipient.’

There seems to be a contradiction between the Pǎli Text of the Chronicle of the Buddhas and the discourses, such as the Dakkhiṇǎvibhaṅga Sutta, etc., of other Pǎli Texts. The seeming contradiction is easily resolved when one remembers that the discourses such as the Dakkhiṇǎvibhaṅga Sutta are meant for ordinary people or devas, whereas the discussions in the Chronicle of Buddhas are directed exclusively to the Bodhisattas whose goal is attainment of Omniscience (sabbaññuta-ñǎụa), or the Buddha-Wisdom. This Wisdom is only one kind and not to be classified into low, medium or great order wisdom. A Bodhisatta has only to give away whatever he has to offer to whoever comes along to receive them, irrespective of his status whether high, medium or low. He does not have to consider thus: ‚This recipient is of low status, by making an offering to him, I shall gain only a low order of Omniscience. This recipient is only of medium status, by making offer to him, I shall gain Omniscience merely of medium order.‛ Therefore, giving of alms to whoever comes along to receive them without any discrimination is the habitual practice of Bodhisatta who are bent on attainment of sabbaññuta-ñǎụa (Omniscience). On the other hand, the aim of ordinary worldlings, devas or humans, in practising generosity is to gain worldly comforts of their liking, and as such, it is natural that they would choose the best recipient for their alms.

It may be concluded, therefore, that there is no contradiction between the texts in the Chronicles of the Buddhas, which are intended for the great Bodhisattas and the discourse such as Dakkhiṇǎvibhaṅga Sutta which are meant for ordinary people and devas.

Meaning of Pǎramī

The possible meanings of the word ‘pǎramī’ have been variously explained in the Cariyǎ- PiÔaka Commentary. Just to let the reader have an idea:

Pǎramī is the combination for ‚parama‛ and ‚ī‛. Parama means ‘most excellent’, which is used here in the sense of future Buddhas who are the most excellent ones.

Or pǎramī derives from the root, ‘para’ with the suffix ‘ma’. The root, ‘para’ means ‘to fulfil’ or ‘to protect’. Because they fulfil and protect such virtues as dǎna (alms-giving), etc., future Buddhas are called parama.

Or para, a prefix, is attached to the root, ‘mava’, meaning ‘to bind’. Because future Buddhas behave as though they bind on and attract other beings to them by means of special virtues, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix is attached to the root, ‘maja’ meaning, ‘to be pure; paraÑ means ‘more’. Because future Buddhas are free of mental impurities and far purer than others, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix, is attached to the root, ‘maya’ meaning ‘to go’; ‘param’ means ‘superior’. Because future Buddhas go to the superior state of Nibbǎna in a special manner, they are called parama.

Or param, a prefix, is attached to the root, ‘mu’ meaning ‘to determine’. Because future Buddhas determine their next existence as they do in the case of the present, they are called parama. (What this means to say is that as future Buddhas are able to ascertain precisely what should be done to make the present existence pleasant and faultless, so are they able to do with regard to their next existence. That is, they have the ability to improve their existences.)

Or paraṁ, a prefix, is attached to the root, ‘mi’ meaning ‘to put in’; paraṁ means

‘more’. Because future Buddhas ‘put in’ more and more such virtues as sīla (morality), etc., in their mental process, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ means ‘different from’ or ‘opposed to’; the root is ‘mi’ meaning ‘to crush’. Because future Buddhas crush all their enemies, which in the form of impurities, are different from and opposed to all virtues, they are called parama.

Or pǎra, a noun, is attached to the root, ‘maja’ meaning ‘to purify’; pǎra means ‘the other shore’. Here saṁsǎra is to be taken as ‘this shore’ and Nibbǎna ‘the other shore’. Because future Buddhas purify themselves as well as others on the other shore of Nibbǎna, they are called pǎramī.

Or pǎra, a noun, is attached to the root ‘mava’ meaning ‘to bind’ or ‘to put together’. Because future Buddhas bind or put beings together in Nibbǎna, they are called pǎramī.

Or the root is maya, meaning ‘to go’. Because future Buddhas go to the other shore of Nibbǎna, they are called pǎramī.

Or the root is mu, meaning ‘to understand’. Because future Buddhas fully understand the other shore of Nibbǎna as it really is, they are called pǎramī.

Or the root is mi meaning ‘to put in’. Because future Buddhas put in and convey being to the other shore of Nibbǎna, they are called pǎramī.

Or the root is mi, meaning ‘to crush’. Because future Buddhas crush and eradicate in Nibbǎna the impurities which are enemies of being, they are called pǎramī.

(These are the various meanings presented in accordance with sabhaνanirutti (natural etymology). They are not random attempts.)

Paramǎnaṁ ayaṁ paramī: Pǎramī means property in the form of practices of future Buddhas; (or) paramǎnaṁ kammaṁ paramī; paramī means duties of future Buddhas; Paramissa bhǎνo pǎramitǎ paramissa kammaṁ pǎramitǎ: duties that bring about knowledge that such a person is a future Buddha.

All this means: A series of duties such as dǎna and others to be fulfilled by future Buddhas is called paramī (or pǎramitǎ).

In the Jinǎlaṅkǎra Sub-commentary, it is said: ‚Pǎraṁ nibbǎnaṁ ayan ti gacchanti etǎhi ti pǎramiyo, nibbǎnasǎdhakǎ hi dǎnacetanǎdayo dhammǎ paramī ti νuccanti,‛ meaning to say that ‚Dǎna cetanǎ or the volition of alms-giving, etc. which forms the way to Nibbǎna, the other side of saṁsǎra, should be called paramī.‛

In the Cariyǎpitaka Commentary, it is said: taụhǎmǎnadiṭṭhīhi anupahatǎ karun’|pǎyakosalla-pariggahita dǎnǎdayo gunǎ pǎramiyo, Pǎramī is constituted by virtues, such as dǎna, etc. that are to be grasped by means of compassion and cleverness. Compassion is shown towards beings who are not spoiled (overwhelmed) by craving, pride and wrong view. Cleverness means wisdom in seeking ways and means. Dǎna, etc. (that are to be guided by compassion and wisdom) are to be named pǎramī. (This explanation is made with special reference to pǎramī of Sambuddhas.)

Perfections

The Ten Perfections are:

1. 1. Generosity (dǎna, translated sometimes as charity, liberality or just alms-giving)
   2. Morality or Virtue (sīla)
   3. Renunciation (nekkhamma)
   4. Wisdom (paññǎ)
   5. Energy (νīriya)
   6. forbearance or Patience (khantī)
   7. Truthfulness (sacca)
   8. Determination or Resolution (adhitthǎna)

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1. 9. Loving-kindness (mettǎ)
   10. Equanimity (upekkhǎ )

(The full meaning of these Perfections will become clear in the following passages.) Concerning these Perfections, it has been mentioned in the Chapter: The Rare Appearance of a Buddha, that there are four kinds of cultivation of mind. One of these cultivations deals with the fact that from the time Bodhisattas receive definite assurance from a Buddha about their Buddhahood till the last rebirth when they actually become a completely Self- Enlightened Buddha, there is no period in this very long interval in which they do not practise for fulfilment of the Ten Pǎramīs (Perfections) at the very least, they do not fail to fulfil the Perfection of Generosity. It fills us with devotional inspiration to reflect on these noble practices pursued by the Bodhisattas.

The Characteristics, functions, Manifestations and Proximate Causes of The Perfections A person practising Vipassanǎ Meditation must come to know the nature of nǎma and

rǔpa by means of their characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes. Then only will he come to possess a clear view of them. Similarly, it is only when one knows the characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause of the Perfections then one will have a clear understanding of them. Therefore, we find in the Commentary to the Cariya PiÔaka a separate chapter on the characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause of the Perfections.

A feature common to all the Ten Perfections is that they have the characteristic of serving the interest of others. Their function is (a) providing assistance to others (kicca- rasa); (b) being endowed with steadfastness (prosperity, success), fulfilment (samǎpatti- rasa). Their manifestation is (a) the recurring phenomenon of the quest for the welfare and benefits of being; or (b) the recurring phenomenon of appearing in the mind (of Bodhisatta) that it is useful means of bringing about Buddhahood. Their proximate cause is

(a) great compassion or (b) great compassion and skilfulness as to means and ways.

It is necessary to provide a few explanations on the above definitions. Characteristic (lakkhaụa) has two aspects: (i) Samannasabhǎva, the ordinary feature of each thing, i.e. the feature applicable to others also and (ii) Visesasabhǎva, the peculiar feature which is not applicable to others. for example, amongst the material qualities, the Earth-element of the four Great Elements has two characteristics, namely, impermanence and hardness. Of these, the characteristic of impermanence is a feature applicable to other elements and is thus an ordinary feature only, whereas, the characteristic of hardness is the unique feature of the Earth-element only, is not shared by others and is thus its special feature.

function (rasa) has also two aspects to it: (i) Kiccarasa, function that which is to be performed; (ii) Sampattirasa, fulfilment, attainment. for example, when meritoriousness arises, it does so after counteracting or obliterating demeritoriousness. Thus, it is said that the function of meritoriousness is the counteracting of demeritoriousness. The final fulfilment of a meritorious act is production of beneficial results; thus the function of meritoriousness is the attainment of beneficial results.

Whenever a person ponders deeply on certain mind-objects, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind-object under consideration; relates to its function; relates to its cause; relates to it effect. The manifestations which thus appear in his mind concerning the mind-object he is thinking about is called its manifestation. for example, when a person starts to investigate ‘what is meritoriousness?’, it would appear in his mind, ‘meritoriousness is of the nature of purity’ regarding its nature; ‘meritoriousness is that which counteracts or obliterates demeritoriousness’ regarding its function; ‘meritoriousness is possible only when one associates with the good and virtuous’ regarding its cause; ‘meritoriousness is that which enables production of desirable results’ regarding is fruition.

The immediate, and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising is called the proximate cause. for example, of many factors which cause the arising of meritoriousness, proper attitude of mind is the immediate and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising and is therefore termed its proximate cause, Padatthǎna, in the Texts.

Some Notable features concerning Dǎna (Generosity, Charity)

The essential thing to know concerning the word ‘Dǎna-pǎramī’ (the Perfection of Generosity) is that anything which is given away or any act of giving is Dǎna (charity or generosity). There are two kinds of giving:

1. Giving as an act of merit (puññavisayadǎna).
2. Giving in conformity with worldly practices (lokavisayadǎna).

Acts of giving out of pure faith are acts of merit (puññavisayadǎna) and only such givings constitute the Perfection of Generosity.

But gifts given in pursuit of love or out of anger, fear, or foolishness etc. and even giving punishment, giving a sentence of death are worldly giving. They do not form part of Perfection of Generosity.

Dǎna (Generosity) and Pariccǎga (Abandonment)

In connection with giving which would amount to an act of merit, it is helpful to understand the differences and similarities between what is termed Dǎna, translated as ‘Generosity’, and what is termed as Pariccǎga, translated as abandonment, renunciation through charity.

In the MahǎhaÑsa Jǎtaka of Asītinipǎta, it is given an enumeration of the ten duties of a king, viz. generosity, morality, abandonment, uprightness, gentleness, self-control, freedom from anger, mercy, forbearance and absence of obstruction. We see therein that generosity and abandonment are listed separately.

According to the Jǎtaka Commentary, there are ten objects which may be offered as alms: food, drink, transportation (including umbrellas, slippers or shoes, which are for travelling), flowers, perfumed powder, scented unguent or ointment, bed, dwelling places, and facilities for lighting. The volition that prompts the giving of these alms constitutes generosity (dǎna). The volition that accompanies the giving away of any other objects of alms is to be regarded as abandonment (pariccǎga). Thus the differentiation here rests on the different kinds of the objects of alms.

But the Sub-commentary of the Jǎtaka, quoting the views of many teachers, says that ‘giving of offerings with the prospect of enjoying good results in future lives is dǎna; giving rewards to servants and service personnel, etc. in order to reap the benefits in the present life is pariccǎga.’

A story that gives another illustration of the difference between generosity and abandonment is described in the Commentary to the Cariyǎpitaka Pǎli Text and in the Commentary to Terasanipata Jǎtaka. Briefly, Bodhisatta was once a learned brahmin by the name of Akitti. When his parents passed away, he was left with a vast accumulation of wealth. Deeply stirred by religious emotion, he reflected thus: ‚My parents and ancestors who have accumulated this great wealth have abandoned them and left, as for me, I shall gather only the substance of this accumulation and depart.‛ Then having obtained permission from the King, he had a drum beaten all over the country to proclaim the great charity he was going to make. for seven days, he personally gave away his riches but there still remained more.

He saw no point in presiding himself over the ceremony of distribution of his wealth, so leaving the doors of his mansion, treasure houses and granaries wide open, so that whoever wished might go and helped themselves to whatever they liked, and he renounced the worldly life and went away.

It may be said that in the above story, distribution of wealth personally by the Bodhisatta during the first seven days is an act of generosity (dǎna), whereas abandoning of the remaining wealth after seven day’s personal distribution is an act of abandonment (pariccǎga). The reason for such distinction is that, for an offering to be an act of generosity (dǎna) four conditions must be fulfilled: (1) a donor, (2) objects to offer, (3) a recipient actually present to receive and (4) the volition to give. The wise man, Akitti’s distribution of wealth during the first seven days fulfils all these conditions. Hence, it is an

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act of generosity (dǎna). After seven days had passed, he went away leaving his wealth before any recipient went near or arrived to actually receive the gifts. Hence, it is said that such offering should be regarded as abandonment.

In every day practice which is not an act of merit, when we give something to some one, we just say we ‘give’; the Pǎli word is ‘deti’. But when we part with our property with the thought let ‘whoever wants it take it; it no one wants it, then let it be‛ it is not giving away but discarding or abandoning; in Pǎli, it is not ‘dǎna’, but ‘cǎga’.

In short, when we hand over possession of our property to another person, it is said to be given away or an act of charity. When we relinquish the wish to possess the property which is one’s own, it is termed abandoning or discarding (as one would cast aside anything which is of no more use).

Another method of differentiation is: giving to noble persons is dǎna; giving to persons of lower status is pariccǎga. Thus, when a king, in performance of the ten duties of a king, makes an offering to noble bhikkhus, brahmins, etc. it would be generosity (dǎna); when he offers alms to lowly beggars, it would be pariccǎga.

In this way, it should be noted how generosity (dǎna) is taught distinctly from abandonment (pariccǎga).

When Dǎna and Pariccǎga are similar

Although dǎna and pariccǎga are treated separately as in the list of the ten duties of a king, shown above, in ultimate truth, the two terms cannot be different from each other. When there is dǎna, there could be pariccǎga; when there is pariccǎga, there could be dǎna. The reason is that when an offering is made to a recipient, whether he is near or far, it is an act of generosity (dǎna). When the sense of ownership is banished from the mind (at the time of giving), this relinquishment is pariccǎga. Thus, whenever someone makes a gift, it is always preceded by the thought: ‚I will not make use of it any more‛ which implies abandonment. Therefore, with acts of merit, there is pariccǎga always accompanying generosity.

In the Chronicles of Buddhas of the Pǎli Canon also, in dealing with the Ten Perfections, the Buddha mentions only the Perfection of Generosity, not the ‘Perfection of Abandonment (cǎga)’, because (as explained above) abandonment is included in an act of generosity. As the Text of the Chronicle of Buddhas deals only with the ultimate truth (without considering the conventional usages), it mentions that making an offering to any recipients, whether of high, medium or low status, is generosity (dǎna). It is irrelevant to say that it is dǎna when offering is made to a noble person and pariccǎga when the recipient is of low status.

Similarly, in the Aṅguttara Nikǎya and other Pǎli Texts, we find the enumeration of the seven niches of a noble person as follow: faith, morality, knowledge, liberality (cǎga), wisdom, moral shame (at doing evil) and moral dread (for doing evil). There is only cǎga in the list; there is no mention of dǎna here, because it is understood that generosity is included in liberality (cǎga).

These are examples where dǎna and cǎga are mentioned without any distinction, with identical meaning.

Where ‘Dǎna’ is termed ‘Pariccǎga’

Although any act of giving may generally be described as Perfection of Generosity, great offerings (of extraordinary nature) are described in the Text as Great Abandonings (Mahǎpariccǎga). The Great Abandonings which consist of five kinds of relinquishing of possession are listed differently in different Commentaries.

Commentaries on the Sīlakkhanda, M|lapaṇṇǎsa and Aṅguttara (in explaining the meaning of the word ‘Tathǎgata’) list the Great Abandonings are follows:

1. Relinquishing of the limbs.

2. Relinquishing of the eyes.
3. Relinquishing of wealth.
4. Relinquishing of kingdom.
5. Relinquishing of wife and children.

The Commentary to the M|lapaṇṇǎsa (in the exposition on the C|ḷasīhanǎda Sutta) gives another list:

1. Relinquishing of the limbs.
2. Relinquishing of wife and children.
3. Relinquishing of kingdom.
4. Relinquishing of one’s body (life).
5. Relinquishing of eyes.

The Sub-commentary to the Visuddhimagga gives the list:

1. Relinquishing of one’s body (life).
2. Relinquishing of the eyes.
3. Relinquishing of wealth.
4. Relinquishing of kingdom.
5. Relinquishing of wife and children.

The Sub-commentary to the Mahǎvagga of the Dīgha Nikǎya (in exposition on the Mahǎpadana Sutta) gives the list:

1. Relinquishing of the limbs.
2. Relinquishing of the eyes.
3. Relinquishing of one’s body (life).
4. Relinquishing of one’s kingdom.
5. Relinquishing of one’s wife and children.

The Commentary to the Itivuttaka (in its exposition of the first sutta of the D|kanipǎta, Dutiyavagga) gives the list:

1. Relinquishing of the limbs.
2. Relinquishing of one’s body (life).
3. Relinquishing of wealth.
4. Relinquishing of wife and children.
5. Relinquishing of kingdom.

The Commentary to the BuddhavaÑsa gives the list:

1. Relinquishing of the limbs.
2. Relinquishing of one’s life.
3. Relinquishing of wealth.
4. Relinquishing of kingdom.
5. Relinquishing of wife and children.

The Commentary to the Vessantara Jǎtaka gives the list:

1. Relinquishing of wealth.
2. Relinquishing of the limbs.

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3. Relinquishing of children.
4. Relinquishing of wife.
5. Relinquishing of one’s life.

The same list is found in the Sub-commentary to the Jinǎlaṅkǎra but arrange in a different order.

Although each of the above lists is made up of slightly different items, it should be noted that the essentials are the same in all of them, namely, external objects and one’s own body. Under external objects, we find material things apart from one’s own body, viz. relinquishing of wealth; relinquishing of of wife and children, very dear to oneself; relinquishing of kingdom, a most important treasure of one’s own. With regard to the relinquishing of one’s own body, it falls under two modes: one that does not endanger life, that is relinquishing of the limbs (angapariccǎga) and the other endangers life, that is relinquishing of the eyes (nayanapariccǎga), or relinquishing of life (jiνitapariccǎga) and relinquishing of one’s own body (attapariccǎga). Here, it is explained giving one’s own eyes or giving one’s own body involves the risk of losing one’s life, so these are considered to be essentially the same as giving one’s life.

The great ceremony of offering performed by King Venssantara when he gave away seven kinds of objects, one hundred each in number, is described by the Commentary as Mahǎdǎna and not Mahǎpariccǎga. But one can argue that this great offering can be considered as one of the five Great Abandonings, namely, great relinquishing of wealth.

Miscellaneous Notes on Different Aspect of Dǎna

for the edification of those aspirants who ardently strive for attainment of perfect Self- Enlightenment of a Buddha, or for Self-Enlightenment of a Paccekabuddha, or for the Enlightenment of a disciple of a Buddha, we provide herewith miscellaneous notes on different aspects of Generosity, which forms a part of the conditions for obtaining Enlightenment. These notes are given in the form of answers to the following questions:

1. What things are called Dǎna?
2. Why are they called Dǎna?
3. What are the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of Dǎna?
4. How many types of Dǎna are there?
5. What are the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of Dǎna?
6. What are the elements that weaken the beneficial results of Dǎna?

(This form of treatment will be adhered to when dealing with other Perfections too.)

1. 1. WHAT THINGS ARE CALLED DŒNA?

In brief, it should be answered that ‘the volition to give a suitable thing’ is called Dǎna. The meaning will become clearer in the following passages.

1. 2. WHY ARE THEY CALLED DŒNA?

The volition is called Dǎna because it is responsible for an act of generosity to take place. There can be no generosity without the volition to give; an act of generosity is possible only when there is the volition to give.

In this connection, by volition is meant:

1. the volition that arises at the time of donation. It is called ‘muñca-cetanǎ’, ‘relinquishing’ volition, ‘munca’ meaning relinquishing. It is only this volition, which accompanies the act of relinquishing, that forms the true element of generosity.
2. The volition that arises in anticipation before one makes the donation is called

‘pubba-cetana’. This type of volition can also be considered as Dǎna, provided that the object to be given is at hand at the time the intention, ‚I shall make an offering of this object‛, occurs. Without the object to be given being actually in one’s possession, cherishing the thought of giving may be called ‘pubba-cetana’ but cannot qualify as Dǎna: it can only be a benevolent thought of ordinary merit.

How volition comes to be taken as synonymous with Dǎna is based on the grammatical definition of Dīyati anenǎti dǎnam, that which prompts giving is generosity (dǎna). (Volition, here, is definitely the determining cause of giving).

Things to be given are also called Dǎna from the grammatical definition of Dīyatiti dǎnam which means objects which could be offered as alms.

following these grammatical definitions, Text of the Canons mention two kinds of dǎna, namely, volitional dǎna and material dǎna. In this connection, questions have been asked why objects to be offered are called dǎna, since only volition is capable of producing results and material object is not. It is true that only volition is productive of results because volition is a mental action but. as explained above, volition can be called dǎna only if it arises when there exist suitable things to be given. Therefore, material object for giving is also an important contributory factor for an act of giving to qualify as generosity (dǎna).

For example, we say ‘rice is cooked because of the firewood’. Actually, it is the fire that cooks the rice. But there can be no fire without firewood. So fire burns because of firewood and rice is cooked because of fire. Thus, taking into consideration, these connected phenomena, it is not incorrect to say ‘rice is well cooked because of good firewood’. Similarly, we can rightly say ‘beneficial result is obtained because of objects of offering’.

Because things to be given away feature importantly in acts of generosity, the Canonical Text mention different types of Dǎna, depending on different objects to be offered. Thus, in expositions on the Vinaya, we find four kinds of dǎna, since the Buddha allows four kinds of requisites to the Sangha, the offerings made to the Sangha are naturally listed under these four kinds. Hence, this classification in the Vinaya expositions of four types of dǎna, which is primarily based upon different kinds of object of offering.

According to the classification in the exposition on the Abhidhamma, everything in the world comes under six categories, which correspond to the six sense objects, there are six kinds of dǎna depending upon whether it is a gift of visible object, of sound, of smell, of taste, of touch or of mind-object or dhamma. Here also, although there is no direct mention of six kinds of dǎna in the Abhidhamma Teachings, if gifts were to be made of each of the sense objects, there would be six kinds of offering; hence this classification in the Abhidhamma expositions of six types of dǎna.

In the Suttanta classification, there are ten kinds of dǎna, namely, offering of various kinds of food, of drink, of transportation, of flowers, of perfumed powder, of scented unguent or ointment, of bed, of dwelling places and of facilities of lighting. Here again, the actual teaching in the Suttas relates only to the ten classes of objects which may be offered as alms. But when these ten objects are offered as alms, there would be then ten kinds of offering; hence this classification in the Suttanta expositions of ten types of dǎna.

Maintaining that the Buddha teaches only these ten objects of offering, one should not consider that these are the only gifts to be given and that other gifts are not allowable. One should understand that the Buddha merely mentions the ten things most commonly offered as alms in practice; or as any material thing can be classified as belonging to one or the other of the ten types of gifts, one should take it that by these ten objects are covered also any object which is in daily use by the noble recipient.

from what has been said above, it should be well noted how a material object is an important contributory factor (for the arising) of volitional generosity. It will be seen that the various types of generosity which will be described henceforth include many that relate to objects of offering.

As a resume of this chapter, it should be remembered that volition is dǎna because it

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prompts giving; the material thing is dǎna because it is suitable thing to give.

1. 3. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS, fUNCTIONS, MANIfESTATION AND PROXIMATE CAUSES OF DŒNA
      1. Dǎna has the characteristic of abandoning (lakkhaụa).
      2. Its function (kicca-rasa) is destruction of attachment to objects of offering; or it has the property of faultlessness (sampatti-rasa).
      3. Its manifestation is absence of attachment i.e. a sense of freedom from attachment that appears in the mind of the donor, or knowing that dǎna is conducive to good destination and wealth, i.e. on thinking of the effects of giving, the donor senses that his act of generosity will result in attainment of rebirth in the human or deva- world and attainment of great wealth.
      4. The proximate cause of giving is having objects of offering in one’s possession. Without having anything to give, there can be no act of charity, only imagining that one gives. Thus objects to be offered are the proximate cause of Dǎna.
   4. HOW MANY TYPES OF DŒNA ARE THERE

The subject to be dealt with under this topic is quite vast as it entails considerable exercise of mental alertness and intelligence to study them.

Types of Dǎna in Groups of Twos

1. Œmisa/Dhamma Dǎna

Offering of material things (Œmisa-dǎna) and the gift of the Teaching (Dhamma-dǎna).

1. 1. Offering of material things, such as alms-rice, etc., is known as Ǎmisa-dǎna. It is also called Paccaya dǎna (when the things offered are the requisites of bhikkhus).

Teaching the Buddha Dhamma in the form of talks, lectures, etc. is giving the gift of Dhamma. The Buddha said that this is the noblest of all types of dǎna. (This classification of dǎna into two types is made according to the objects of offering.)

In relation to this division of types of dǎna, it is necessary to look into the question of what type of dǎna accrues to one who erects pagodas and statues of Buddha.

There are some who maintain that although erecting of pagodas and statues of Buddha involves relinquishing of large amount of wealth, it cannot be an act of generosity (dǎna), because they say, for an act of giving to become dǎna, three conditions must be fulfilled:

(1) there must be a recipient, (2) there must be an object for offering and (3) there must be a donor. In erecting pagodas and statues of Buddha, there is obviously the donor, but who receives his gift, they asked. In the absence of anyone to receive the gift, how can it be an act of generosity (dǎna).

from their point of view, the pagodas and Buddha statues are not objects to be given as an act of dǎna but rather, they serve as aids to recollection of the attributes of the Buddha. A builder of pagodas and Buddha statues has no particular receiver in mind to give them away. He builds them to help produce vivid visualization of the Buddha in the mind of the devotees so as to enable them to practise the Recollection of the Virtues of the Buddha. It should, therefore, be considered, they maintain, that erecting pagodas and Buddha statues is related to the Buddhǎnussati Meditation, cultivation of the Recollection of the Virtues of the Buddha, and is not act of generosity.

There are, again, some people who maintain that as the person, who builds pagodas and installs Buddha statues, undertakes these works in order to honour, to make homage to the most Homage-Worthy Buddha, his act must be considered as an act of honouring the Buddha (apacǎyana), one of the ten qualities contributing to merit (puññakiriya-νatthu). They further say that since this kind of merit, namely, honouring those who are worthy of honour, is a practice of morality (cǎritta-sīla), it should come under (observance of) sīla and not under (cultivation of) Buddhǎnussati Meditation.

But neither the merit of Buddhǎnussati Meditation nor the merit of honouring

(apacǎyana) involves relinquishing of objects of offering; whereas building a pagoda and installing Buddha statues require an expenditure of a large sum of money. Hence, these works of merit must be considered to come under Dǎna.

Here the question may be asked: ‘If it comes under dǎna, will it be an act of dǎna when there is no recipient for it?’ According to the Texts, whether an offering should be regarded as an act of dǎna may be decided by an analysis of its features, viz. characteristic, function, manifestation and proximate cause. We have already provided above what these four features are, for a true act of dǎna. Now applying this test to the present problems, we find the characteristic of abandoning, since the person, who builds the pagoda and installs the Buddha statues, relinquishes a large sum of money; as for function, there is destruction of attachment to the objects of offering by the donor; as its manifestation, the donor senses that his act of generosity will result in attainment of rebirth in the human or deva-world and attainment of great wealth; and finally, as the proximate cause, there is the object to be offered. Thus, all the four features necessary for an offering to be truly an act of dǎna are present here and we may, therefore, conclude that building a pagoda and installing Buddha statues is a true act of generosity.

As to the question of who receives the gift, it will not be wrong to say that all the devas and human beings, who worship at the pagodas and Buddha statues in memory of the virtues of the Buddha, are the recipients of the dǎna. At the same time, as they serve as objects of worship for the devas and human beings in their recollection of the virtues of the Buddha, they also form the objects of offering. All the various material things in the world are utilized in different ways depending on their nature; food materials are utilized for consumption; clothing materials are utilized for wearing; material for religious devotion and adoration are utilized as objects of veneration.

If wells and tanks are dug near public highways, the general public could use them for drinking water, washing, etc. The donor would have no particular recipient in mind when he dug the wells and tanks. When, as he intended, the wayfarers, passing by the road, make use of his gifts, no one could say that his gift is not an act of dǎna; even if he did not finalize it with a libation ceremony. (See below).

Now to wind up the discussion, it is quite proper to say that builder of a pagoda with Buddha statues is a donor, the pagoda and Buddha statues are objects of dǎna, and devas and human beings who pay homage to them in adoration are the recipients of the dǎna.

An additional question may be asked: ‚Is it really proper to refer to pagodas and Buddha statues as objects of dǎna; may it not be sacrilegious to classify them as such?‛ Just as bookcases and shelves are used in the monasteries for holding Canonical Texts which are looked up as sacred (Dhamma-cetiya), so also pagodas and Buddha statues form storehouses for keeping sacred relics and objects of veneration. So it may be answered that it is quite appropriate to designate them as objects of generosity (dǎna).

Whether A Libation Ceremony is Essential for An Offering to qualify as An act of Generosity

The point to consider here is what constitutes an act of dǎna when it is not finalised with a libation ceremony. Actually there is no mention of this requirement in the Texts. The practice is, however, or long standing tradition.

In the Commentary on Chapter: Cīvarakkhandhaka of the Vinaya Mahǎvagga, we find the following reference to this tradition of libation ceremony. ‚There was a split among the bhikkhus of a monastery prior to the time of offering of robes after the Buddhist Vassa. When the time arrived, lay devotees came and offered robes, piled up in a heap, to one group of bhikkhus. The devotees then went to the other group of bhikkhus and performed the ceremony of libation, saying: ‚We offer to the other group of bhikkhus.‛ As to how the robes should be distributed among the Sangha, the Great Commentary says that if it was a region where the ceremony of libation is of no importance, the robes belonged to the group (of bhikkhus) which had been directly offered the robes. The group which received only ‘the libation’ had no claim to the robes. But if it was in a region where the libation ceremony is of importance, the group which received only ‘the libation’ had a claim to the

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robes because the ceremony of libation was performed with them; the other group to which the robes were offered directly had also a claim on them since they had the robes already in their possession. Therefore, the two groups must divide the robes equally among themselves. This method of distribution is a practice followed by tradition in regions on the other side of the Ocean.‛

‚Regions on the other side of the Ocean,‛ from Sri Lanka implies ‚the Jambudīpa‛, i.e. India. Therefore, it should be noted that the ceremony of libation is a practice traditionally followed by the people of India.

Considering that there are regions where they set a great store by ceremony of libation and there are regions where they set no great store by the ceremony of libation, it cannot be said that an offering constitutes an act of generosity only when it is finalised by a ceremony of libation. The ceremony is important only for those who follow the tradition of libation; it is clear that no significance is attached to it by those who do not follow the tradition. It should be noted, therefore, that a libation ceremony is not a primary factor for the successful completion of an act of generosity.

1. 2. With respect to the gift of the Teaching (dhamma-dǎna), there are, nowadays, people who are unable to teach the Dhamma, but who, bent on making a gift of the Teaching, spend money on books, palm-leaf scripts, etc. (of Canonical Texts) and make a gift of them. Although such a donation of books is not truly a gift of the Teaching, since a reader will be benefitted by reading in the books, practices and instructions which will lead one to Nibbǎna, the donor may be regarded as one who makes a gift of the Teaching.

It is like the case of one who has no medicine to give to a sick person, but only a prescription for a cure of the illness. When the medicine is prepared as prescribed and taken, the illness is removed. Although the person does not actually administer any medicine, because of his effective prescription, he is entitled to be regarded as one who has brought about the cure of illness. Likewise, the donor of books on Dhamma who personally cannot teach the Dhamma enables the readers of his books to attain knowledge of the Dhamma and thus is entitled to be called the donor of the gift of Dhamma.

Now, to conclude this section, the pair of gifts mentioned above, namely, Amisa-dǎna and Dhamma-dǎna may also be called Amisa-p|jǎ, honouring with material things and Dhamma-p|jǎ, honouring with the Teaching; the terms means the same thing.

The word ‘Pǔjǎ ’ means ‘honouring’ and is generally used when a younger person makes an offering to an older person or a person of higher status. Depending on this general usage, some people have stated that dǎna should be divided into ‘pǔjǎ-dǎna’ and ‘anuggaha-dǎna’; ‘pǔjǎ-dǎna’, honouring with an offering when the gift is made by a younger person or a person of lower status to an older person or person of higher status; and ‘anuggaha-dǎna’ offering to render assistance out of kindness when a gift is given by an older person or a person of higher status to one who is younger or of lower status.

But as we have seen before in the Chapter on ‘Prediction’, the word ‘P|jǎ’ can be used for both the high or the low and the word ‘Anuggaha’ is likewise applicable to both cases. It is true that generally, ‘anuggaha’ is used when the giving is made by the high to the low or by the old to the young. But we must, however, remember the usages of ‘amisǎnuggaha’ and ‘dhammǎnuggaha’ to describe the assistance rendered and support given, for the progress and development of the Buddha’s Teaching. Here the word ‘anuggaha’ is employed even though the gift is being made to the highest and the noblest Teaching of the Buddha. Thus, it should be noted that the division into pǔjǎ-dǎna and anuggaha-dǎna is not an absolute division into two aspects of dǎna, but rather a classification following common usage.

2. Ajjhattika/Bǎhira Dǎna

Offering of one’s own person (Ajjhattika-dǎna) and offering of external properties (Bǎhira-dǎna).

Offerings of one’s own person means giving away of one’s own life and limbs. Offerings

of external properties include giving of all the external material possessions of the donor.

Even in this modern time, we read sometimes in the newspapers of offerings of one’s own limbs at the pagoda or of ‘honouring with the gift’ of burning oneself after wrapping the whole body with cloth and pouring oil on it. Some comments have been made on such kinds of dǎna involving one’s limbs. According to them, such offerings of one’s life and limbs are deeds to be performed only by great Bodhisattas and are not the concern of ordinary persons. They doubt if such offerings made by ordinary persons produce any merit at all.

Now to consider whether such views are justified or not. It is not as if a Bodhisatta can suddenly make his appearance in this world. Only after gradually fulfilling the required perfections to the best of his ability, an individual grows in maturity and develops himself stage by stage to become a Bodhisatta. Ancient poets have written thus: Only by gradual venture, one ensures continuous improvement in rebirths to come. Therefore, we should not hastily condemn those who make offerings of parts of their body or the whole of their body. If a person, through unflinching volition and faith, very courageously makes an offering of his own body, even to the extent of abandoning his life, he is actually worthy of praise as a donor of the gift of one’s own person, Ajjhattika-dǎna.

3. Vatthu/Abhaya Dǎna

Offering of property (Vatthu-dǎna) and granting of safety (Abhaya-dǎna).

Vatthu-dǎna is concerned with offering of material things. Abhaya-dǎna means granting of safety or security with respect to life or property. This is usually an exercise of mercy by kings.

4. Vattanissita/Vivattanissita Dǎna

Vattanissita-dǎna is offering made in the hope of future worldly wealthy and pleasures, which means suffering in the cycle of existence. Vivattanissita-dǎna is concerned with offering made in aspiration for Nibbǎna which is free of the suffering of rebirth.

5. Sǎvajja/Anavajja Dǎna

Dǎna tainted with fault (Sǎvajja-dǎna) and dǎna untainted with fault (Anavajja-dǎna).

Offering of meals with meat obtained from killing of animals is an example of dǎna tainted with fault. Offering of meals which does not involve killing of animals is dǎna untainted with fault. The first type is an act of generosity accompanied by demeritoriousness and the second type is dǎna unaccompanied by demeritoriousness.

We see the case of some fishermen, who, having accumulated wealth from fishing, decided to give up the business thinking: ‚I shall abandon this demeritorious fishing work and adopt a pure mode of livelihood.‛ Engaging in other occupations, they find their prosperity declining and, therefore, had to revert to their old vocation, and their wealth grew. This is an example of dǎna tainted with fault (Sǎvajja-dǎna) done in previous lives coming to fruition in the present life. Since that act of dǎna was associated with the act of killing, at the time of its fruition too, success is achieved only when associated with act of killing (fishing). When not associated with an act of killing, the previous dǎna tainted with fault cannot come to fruition and his wealth declines.

6. Sǎhatthika/Anattika Dǎna

Offering made with one’s own hand (Sǎhatthika-dǎna) and offering made by agents on one’s behalf or made by other under one’s instruction (Anattika-dǎna).

(That Sǎhatthika-dǎna brings more beneficial results than the Anattika-dǎna can be read in the Pǎyǎsi Sutta of Mahǎ Vagga, Dīgha Nikǎya, of the Pǎli Canon).

7. Sakkacca/Asakkacca Dǎna

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Offering made with proper and careful preparation (Sakkacca-dǎna) and offering made without proper and careful preparation (Asakkacca-dǎna).

As an example, offering of flowers may be cited. Having gathered flowers from trees, a donor creates garlands of festoon with them, and arranges them to look as beautiful and as pleasant as possible, and makes his offering of flowers, then it is a sakkacca-dǎna, offering made with proper and careful preparations. Without such careful preparations, when flowers are presented as they have been gathered from trees, thinking that the mere gift of the flowers is sufficient in itself, then it is asakkacca-dǎna, offering made without proper and careful preparations.

Some ancient writers have translated ‘sakkacca-dǎna’ and ‘asakkacca-dǎna’ into Myanmar to mean ‘offering made with due respect’ and ‘offering made without due respect’. This rendering has, as often as not, misled the modern readers to think that it means paying due respect or without paying due respect to the receiver of the offering. Actually, ‘paying due respect’ here means simply ‘making careful preparations’ for the offering.

8. Nǎnasampayutta/Naṇavippayutta Dǎna

Offering associated with wisdom (Nǎnasampayutta-dǎna) and offering unassociated with wisdom (Naṇavippayutta-dǎna).

Offering made with clear comprehension of volitional acts and the results they produce is said to be an offering associated with wisdom. When an offering is made without such comprehension and awareness, by just following examples of others making donation, it is naụaνippayutta-dǎna. It must be mentioned that just awareness of cause and its ensuing effect, while an offering is being made, is sufficient to make it an offering which is associated with wisdom. In this connection, an explanation is necessary with respect to some exhortations which run like this: ‘Whenever an offering is made, it should be accompanied by Insight Knowledge (νipassanǎ-ñǎụa), in this manner, I, the donor of the gift, am anicca, of impermanent nature; and the recipient of the gift is also anicca, of impermanent nature. The impermanent I am offering the impermanent gift to the impermanent recipient. Thus, you should contemplate whenever you make an offering of gifts.’

This exhortation is made only to encourage the practice of developing Insight Knowledge (νipassanǎ-ñǎụa). It should not be misunderstood that an act of generosity is not one associated with wisdom, if the donor does not practise contemplation as exhorted.

As a matter of fact, whoever wants to develop real νipassanǎ-ñǎụa should first of all discard the notion of I, he, man, woman, i.e. the illusion of I, the illusion of Self, to discern that they are merely material aggregates and mental aggregates. Then one has to go on contemplating so as to realise that these aggregates of mind and matter are of the nature impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality. Without differentiation into aggregates of mind and matter, if one were to contemplate on conventional concepts of ‘I am anicca; the object of offering is anicca; the recipient is anicca’, no real insight Knowledge would be possible.

9. Sasaṅkhǎrika/ Asaṅkhǎrika Dǎna

Offering made hesitatingly and only after being urged is Sasaṅkhǎrika-dǎna and offering made spontaneously without being urged is Asaṅkhǎrika-dǎna.

Here urging means prompting or entreating earnestly someone to give when he is hesitating or reluctant to do so. Such offering is made only with prompting. But, a simple request should not be taken as urging. for example, a person, who has not made any decision whether he will or he will not make a donation, is requested to make some alms contribution and he gives willingly without any hesitation. This is a spontaneous gift in response to a simple request. Such is an asaukhǎrika-dǎna (one without prompting), and should not be called a sasaukhǎrika-dǎna (just because it is made after a request). Another

person is similarly approached and similarly requested to make a contribution but he is reluctant at first and refuses to do so. But when the request is repeated with a prompting

‚Do make a gift, don’t flinch‛ and he makes a contribution. His dǎna is made as consequence of urging is of sasaukhǎrika-dǎna type (one with prompting). Even in the case where no one has made an approach to request for dǎna, if one first thinks of making an offering, and then shrinks away from the idea, but after much self persuasion, self- inducement, finally makes the gift, his dǎna is sasaukhǎrika type too.

10. Somanassa/Upekkhǎ Dǎna

Offering made while one is in a joyful mood with a happy frame of mind is Somanassa- dǎna. Offering made with a balanced state of mind, neither joyous nor sorrowful but equipoise is Upekkhǎ-dǎna.

(When the act of giving is accompanied by pleasure, it is Somanassa-dǎna; when it is accompanied by equanimity, it is Upekkhǎ-dǎna.)

11. Dhammiya/Adhammiya Dǎna

Offering of property earned in accordance with Dhamma by just means is Dhammiya- dǎna. Offering of property earned by immoral means, such as stealing, robbing, is Adhammiya-dǎna.

Although earning of property by immoral means is not in accord with dhamma, offering as alms of such property is nevertheless an act of merit, but the good results accruing from this type of dǎna cannot be great as those obtained from the first type, the dhammiya-dǎna. A comparison can be made of these two different results with types of plant that will grow from a good seed and from a bad seed.

12. Dǎsa/Bhujissa Dǎna

Offering made with hopes of gaining worldly pleasures is Enslaving dǎna (Dǎsa-dǎna), the offering that will enslave one. Being a slave to craving for sense-pleasures, one makes this kind of dǎna to serve one’s Master, the Craving to fulfil its wishes. Offering made with aspiration for attainment of the Path and fruition, the Nibbǎna, is dǎna for freedom, Bhujissa-dǎna (offering made in revolt against the dictate of the Master, the Craving).

Sentient beings in the endless round of existences desire to enjoy the delightful pleasures of the senses (visible objects, sounds, smells, tastes, touch). This desire to revel in the so called pleasures of the senses is called Craving. Every moment of their existence is devoted to satisfying that Craving; fulfilling the needs of that Craving, they have becomes its servants. Continuous striving, day and night throughout their life for wealth is nothing but fulfilment of the wishes of the Craving which demands the best of food, the best of clothing and the most luxurious way of living.

Not content with being a slave to Craving in the present life, working to fulfil its every need, we make acts of dǎna to ensure luxurious living in future. This type of offering accompanied by a strong wish for enjoyment of worldly pleasures continuously for lives to come, is definitely an enslaving dǎna (dǎsa-dǎna).

This type of dǎna in fulfilment of the wishes of Craving and which ensures servitude to Craving throughout the endless round of existence is performed, thinking it to be the best, before one encounters the Teachings of the Buddha. But once we are fortunate enough to hear the Buddha Dhamma, we come to understand how powerful this Craving is, how insatiable it is, how much we have to suffer for fulfilling the wishes of this Craving. Then resolving, ‚I will no longer be a servant of this terrible Craving, I will no longer fulfil its wishes, I will rebel against it, I will go against it and in order to uproot, to eradicate this evil Craving, one makes offerings with aspiration for attainment of the Path and fruition, the Nibbǎna. This dǎna is called dǎna made for freedom, Bhujissa-dǎna (offering made in revolt against the dictates of the Master, Craving).

13. Thǎvara/Athǎvara Dǎna

Offering of things of permanent, immovable nature,  such as pagodas, temples,

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monasteries, rest houses and digging wells, tanks, etc., is Thǎvara-dǎna. Offering of things of movable nature meant for temporary use, such as food, robes, etc. movable gifts, is Athǎvara-dǎna.

14. Saparivǎra/Aparivǎra Dǎna

Offering made with accompaniment of supplementary material that usually go along with such an offering is Saparivǎra-dǎna. for example, in offering robes as main item of gifts, when it is accompanied by suitable and proper accessories and requisites, it is a sapariνǎra- dǎna; when there are no other objects of offering besides the main item of robes, it is a gift without accompanying thing, Aparivǎra-dǎna. The same differentiation applies to offerings made with other forms of gifts.

The special characteristic marks on the body of Bodhisattas, who have large retinue attending upon them, are the benefits that result from sapariνǎra type of dǎna.

15. Nibaddha/Anibaddha Dǎna

Offering made constantly or regularly such as offering of alms-food to the Sangha everyday is Constant dǎna, (Nibaddha-dǎna). Offering made not constantly, not on a regular basis but only occasionally when one is able to so, is occasional offering (Anibaddha-dǎna).

16. Paramattha/Aparamattha Dǎna

Tarnished offering (Paramattha-dǎna). Untarnished offering (Aparamattha-dǎna).

Offering which is tarnished by craving and wrong view is Paramattha-dǎna. Offering which is not corrupted by craving and wrong view is Aparamattha-dǎna.

According to Abhidhamma, one is corrupted when led astray by wrong view alone; but wrong view always co-exists with craving. When wrong view corrupts and leads one astray, craving is also involved. Therefore, both craving and wrong view are mentioned above. And this is how craving and wrong view bring about corruption. Having made an offering, if one expresses an ardent, wholesome wish: ‚May I attain speedily the Path and fruition (Nibbǎna) as a result of this act of merit‛, the offering becomes one of Vivatthanissita type (see type 4 above), and it could serve as a strong sufficing condition for attainment of the Path and fruition (Nibbǎna). But instead of making such a wholesome wish for Nibbǎna, when one, corrupted and led astray by craving and wrong view, aspires a result of this act of merit: ‚May I become a distinguished deva such as Sakka, the King of TǎvatiÑsa abode, or just a deva of the durable divine realms, his dǎna cannot serve as a sufficing condition for attainment of Nibbǎna and is classed as mere paramattha-dǎna, the dǎna which is bereft of the sufficing condition for attainment of Nibbǎna, being tarnished by craving and wrong view. The dǎna which is not tarnished by craving and wrong view but is made with the sole purpose of attaining Nibbǎna is classed as aparamattha-dǎna.

Much charity can also be practised outside the Teaching of the Buddha; but dǎna of paramattha type is only possible then. It is only within the Teaching of the Buddha that dǎna of aparamattha type can be practised. So while we are blessed with the rare opportunity of meeting with the Teachings of the Buddha, we should strive our utmost to ensure that our offering are the aparamattha type.

17. UcchiÔÔha/AnucchiÔÔha Dǎna

Offering made with what is leftover, what is inferior, wretched is UcchiÔÔha-dǎna. Offering made with what is not leftover, what is not inferior, wretch is AnucchiÔÔha-dǎna.

Suppose, while preparations are being made for a meal, a donee appears and one donates some of the food that has been prepared before one has eaten it; it is considered to be ‘the highest gift’ (agga-dǎna) and it is also an anucchiṭṭha-dǎna since the offering is not the

leftover of a meal. If the donee arrives while one is eating the meal, but before eating is finished, and one makes an offering of the food taken from the meal one is eating, that is also considered to be an anucchiṭṭha-dǎna; it can even be said to be a noble gift. When the offering is made of the food leftover after one has finished eating, it is a gift of the leftover, an ucchiṭṭha-dǎna; a wretched, inferior one. It should be noted, however, that the humble offering made by one who has nothing else to give but the leftover meal could well be called an anucchiṭṭha-dǎna. It is only when such an offer is made by one who can well afford to make a better gift that his gift is regarded as a wretched, inferior one, ucchiṭṭha- dǎna.

18. Sajiva/Accaya Dǎna

Offering made while one is still alive is Sajiva-dǎna. Offering which is meant to become effective after one’s death: ‚I give such of my property to such and such a person. Let him take possession of them after my death and make use of them as he wishes‛ is Accaya- dǎna.

A bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) is not permitted to make an accaya type of dǎna, i.e. he cannot leave his properties as gifts for others after death. Even if he should do so, it does not constitute an act of dǎna; the would-be recipient also has no right of possession to them. If a bhikkhu gives from his properties to another bhikkhu while he still living, the receiver is entitled to what is given to him; or while the bhikkhu is till alive, some bhikkhu, who is on intimate terms (νissǎssagaha) with him, can take it and come to possess it; or if he owns something jointly (dνisantaka) with another bhikkhu, when he dies the surviving bhikkhu becomes the sole owner. Unless these conditions are fulfilled, namely, giving his property during his lifetime, taking possession of it by reason of intimacy while he is still alive, or possessing it through dual ownership, the bhikkhu’s property becomes the property of the Sangha, the Order of Bhikkhus, when he dies. Therefore, if a bhikkhu makes an accaya-dǎna, saying: ‚I give such of my property to such and such a person when I die. Let him take possession of them‛, it amounts to giving a property which by then belongs to the Order of Bhikkhus. His giving does not form an act of dǎna and the would-be recipient is also not entitled to it’s ownership. it is only amongst the laymen that such kind of gift, accaya-dǎna, is possible and legal.

19. Puggalika/Saṅghika Dǎna

Offering made to one or two separate individual persons is Puggalika-dǎna. Offering made to the whole Order of Bhikkhus (the Sangha), is Saṅghika-dǎna.

Sangha means group, assemblage or community; here, the whole community of the ariya disciples of the Buddha is meant. In making an offering intended for the Sangha, the donor must have in his mind not the individual ariya disciples that constitute the Order, but the community of the ariya disciples as a whole. Then only his offering will be of the saughika type.

Dakkhinǎvibhanga Sutta (of Majjhima Nikǎya Pǎli Canon) give an enumeration of the 14 kinds of gifts to individuals (puggalika-dǎna) and 7 kinds of gifts to the Sangha (saughika- dǎna). It is useful to know them.

14 Kinds of Gift to Individuals

1. Offering made to a Buddha.
2. Offering made to a Paccekabuddha, a non-teaching Buddha.
3. Offering made to an arahat or to one who has attained the arahatta-phala stage.
4. Offering made to one who is striving to realise arahatta-phala or one who has attained the arahatta-magga stage.
5. Offering made to an anǎgǎmin or to one who has attained the anǎgǎmī-phala stage.
6. Offering made to one who is striving to realise anǎgǎmī-phala or one who has

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attained the anǎgǎmī-magga stage.

7. Offering made to a sakadǎgǎmin or to one who has attained the sakadǎgǎmī-phala

stage.

8. Offering made to one who is striving to realise sakadǎgǎmī-phala or one who has attained sakadǎgǎmī-magga stage.
9. Offering made to a sotǎpanna or to one who has attained the sotǎpatti stage.
10. Offering made to one who is striving to realise sotǎpatti-phala or one who has attained sotǎpatti-magga.
11. Offering made to recluses (outside the Teaching of the Buddha or when the Teaching is not in existence) who are accomplished in jhǎna or Supernormal Power attainment.
12. Offering made to ordinary lay person who possesses morality.
13. Offering made to ordinary lay person who is devoid of morality.
14. Offering made to an animal.

Of these 14 kinds of offering made to individuals, giving one full meal to an animal will bring wholesome results of long life, good looks, physical wellbeing, strength, and intelligence for one hundred lives. Then in an ascending order, giving one full meal to a lay person of poor morality will bring these wholesome results for one thousand lives; to lay person of good morality at a time when the Buddha’s Teaching is not in existence and he has no opportunity to take refuge in the Triple Gem, for a hundred thousand lives; to recluses and ascetics accomplished in jhǎna attainment, for ten billion lives; to lay men and novitiates (during a period when the Teachings of Buddhas are extant) who take refuge in the Triple Gem, and up to the Noble person who has attained the sotǎpatti-magga, for an innumerable period (asaukhyeyya) of lives; and to persons of higher attainment up to the Buddha, for countless periods of lives. (According to the Commentary, even one who only takes refuge in the Triple Gem may be considered as a person who is practising for realisation of sotǎpatti-phala).

There is no mention of bhikkhus of loose morality in the above list of 14 kinds of recipient of offerings made to individuals. The Buddha’s enumeration of offering made to a person devoid of morality concerns only the period when the Buddha’s Teaching is not in existence. for these reasons, there is a tendency to consider that offerings made to bhikkhus of impure morality while the Buddha’s Teaching are still not in existence are blameworthy. But one should remember that anyone, who has become a Buddhist, at the very least, takes refuge in the Triple Gem; and the Commentary says that whoever takes refuge in the Triple Gem is a person who is practising for realisation of sotǎpatti-phala. furthermore, when an offering made to an ordinary lay person, who is devoid of morality (while the Teaching of Buddha is not in existence), could be of much benefit, there is no doubt that offerings made to an ordinary lay person devoid of morality while the Teaching of the Buddha is still existing could be beneficial too.

Again, the Milinda-Pañha Text, Nǎgasena Thera explains that an immoral bhikkhu is superior to an immoral lay person in ten respects, such as reverence shown to the Buddha, reverence shown to the Dhamma, reverence shown to the Sangha, etc. Thus, according to the Milinda Pañha, an immoral bhikkhu is superior to an immoral lay person; and since he is listed by the Commentary as one who is practising for realisation of sotǎpatti-phala, one should not say that it is blameworthy and fruitless to make an offering to a bhikkhu who is devoid of morality.

There is yet another point of view in connection with this matter. At a time when there is no Teaching of the Buddha, immoral bhikkhus cannot cause any harm to the Teaching; but when the Teaching is in existence, they can bring harm to it. for that reason, no offering should be made to bhikkhus who is devoid of morality during the period when there is the Buddha’s Teaching. But that view is shown by the Buddha to be untenable.

At the conclusion of the discourse on seven kinds of offering to the Sangha (saughika- dǎna)(see below), the Buddha explains to Œnanda:

‚Œnanda, in times to come, there will appear vile bhikkhus, devoid of morality, who are bhikkhus only in name, who will wear their robes round their necks. With the intention of giving up the Sangha, offerings will be made to these immoral bhikkhus. Even when offered in this manner, a saughika-dǎna, an offering meant for the whole Sangha, I declare, will bring innumerable, inestimable benefits.‛

There is still another point to take into consideration. Of the four Purities of Generosity (Dakkhiụǎ Visuddhi), the first Purity is: Even if the donee is of impure morality, when the donor is moral, the offering is pure by reason of purity of the donor. for these reasons also, one should not say that an immoral bhikkhu is not a donee, and that no benefit will accrue by making an offering to him.

It should be well noted, therefore, it is blameworthy only when we make an offering with bad intentions of approving and encouraging an immoral bhikkhu in his evil practices; without taking into considerations his habits, if one makes the offering with a pure mind, thinking only ‘one should give if someone comes for a donation’, it is quite blameless.

Seven Kinds of Gifts to The Sangha (Saṅghika-dǎna)

1. Offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs led by the Buddha, while He is still living.
2. Offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs after the Parinibbǎna of the Buddha.
3. Offering made to the community of bhikkhus only.
4. Offering made to the community of bhikkhunīs only.
5. Offering made (with the whole Sangha in mind) to a group of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs as nominated by the Order. Such an offering is made when the donor could not afford to give offerings to all the bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs and requests the Order to nominate a certain number (he could afford to give) of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs to receive the offerings. The Sangha nominates the required number of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs and the donor makes the offerings to that group of bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs (with the whole Sangha in mind).
6. Offering made to a group of bhikkhus only (with the whole Sangha in mind) after requesting the Sangha to nominate the number he could afford to give.
7. Offering made (with the whole of Sangha in mind) to a group of bhikkhunīs only after requesting the Sangha to nominate the number he could afford to give.

Of these seven kinds of saughika-dǎna, it may be asked, if it is possible to make an offering of the first kind, namely, an offering made to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs led by the Buddha, after the Parinibbǎna of the Buddha. The answer is ‚Yes, it is possible‛ and the offer should be made in this manner: after placing a statue of the Buddha containing relics in front of the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs who have gathered for the ceremony, the offering should be made, saying: ‚I make this offering to the community of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs led by the Buddha‛.

Having done an offering of the first kind, the question arises as to what happens to the objects of offering which was intended for the Buddha. Just as the property of the father customarily goes to the son, so too should the offerings intended for the Buddha go to the bhikkhu who does devotional duties to the Buddha or to the community of bhikkhus. Especially, if the objects offered include such materials as oil, ghee, etc. which should be utilized in offering of lights by oil lamps to the Buddha; pieces of cloth included in the offering should be made into banners and streamers to be offered in worship.

During the Buddha's lifetime, people were generally not disposed to form attachment to, or concerning themselves with individual personalities; they had their mind bent on the Order of Bhikkhus as a whole, and thus were able to make much offering of the noble saughika-dǎna kind. Consequently, the needs of the members of the Order were mostly met by the distributions made by the Order; they had little need to rely on lay man and lay

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woman donors and, therefore, had little attachment to them as ‘the donors of my monastery, the donors of my robes, etc.’ Thus, the bhikkhu could be free of bonds of attachments.

Brief Story of The Householder Ugga

Those desirous of making offerings of pure Saughika-dǎna type should emulate the example set by the householder Ugga. The story of the householder Ugga is found in the second discourse of the Gahapati Vagga, AÔÔhakanipǎta of Aṅguttara Nikǎya Pǎli Canon.

At one time when the Buddha was residing at Elephant Village in the country of Vajjī, He addressed the bhikkhus, saying: ‚Bhikkhus, you should regard the householder Ugga of Elephant Village as a person endowed with eight wonderful attributes.‛ Stating thus briefly, without giving any elaboration, He went inside the monastery.

Then a bhikkhu went in the morning to the house of the householder and said to him:

‚Householder, the Bhagavǎ has said that you are a person endowed with eight wonderful attributes. What are these eight wonderful attributes which the Bhagavǎ said you are endowed with?‛

‚Venerable Sir, I am not exactly sure what specific eight wonderful attributes the Buddha said I am endowed with, but, please listen with proper attention to an account of the eight wonderful attributes which I actually possess.‛ Then he gave the following full description of the eight wonderful attributes as follows:

1. 1. The first time I saw the Buddha was when I was drinking and enjoying myself in the forest of Ironwood flowers. As soon as I saw the Buddha coming in the distance, I became sober and devotional piety and faith in the virtues of the Buddha rose in me. This is the first wonder.
   2. At that very first meeting with the Buddha, I took refuge in the Buddha and listened to His discourse. As a result, I became a sotǎpanna (a ‘Stream-winner’), and established in the observance of Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla. This is the second wonder.

(Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla is similar to the five precepts habitually observed by lay people except that, instead of the precept, ‘I abstain from sexual misconduct’, it has the precept, ‘I abstain from any form of sexual intercourse’. With the usual formula of the five precepts, and one abstains from sexual intercourse with anyone other than one's own wife; but the Brahmacariya-pañcama-sīla requires total abstinence of sex, not even with one's own wife.)

1. 3. I had four wives, as soon as I arrived back home, I said to them: ‘I have vowed to observe the precept of total abstinence. Whoever wishes to remain living in this house may do so enjoying my wealth as you like and doing meritorious deeds with it; whoever wants to go back to her parents home is also free to do so; and whoever wants to get married to another man may just tell me to whom I should give you.’ The eldest of my four wives expressed her wish to be married to a certain person whom she named. I sent for the man and holding my eldest wife with my left hand and a jug of water in my right hand, I gave away my wife to the man. In making this gift of my wife to the man, I remained completely unmoved, unaffected. This is the third wonder.
   4. I have resolved to use all my wealth jointly with people of good moral character. This is the fourth wonder.
   5. I always approach a bhikkhu with all due respect, never without reverence; if the bhikkhu gives me a talk on Dhamma, I listen to his discourse with respect only, never without reverence; if the bhikkhu does not give me a talk on Dhamma, I give him a discourse. This is the fifth wonder.
   6. Whenever I invite the Sangha to my house to make some offerings, devas would come ahead of them and inform me: ‘Householder, such and such bhikkhus are

enlightened, noble persons (ariyas); such and such bhikkhus are ordinary persons of morality; such and such bhikkhus are devoid of morality.’ That the devas come and give me this prior information about the bhikkhus is nothing surprising to me; the wonder is that when I make offering of meals or material things to the Sangha such thoughts as ‘I will offer much to this individual because he is an enlightened noble person, of good morality; or I will offer little to this individual since he is of poor morality’ would never occur to me. As a matter of fact, without differentiation as to who is noble, who is moral or who is immoral, I make my offerings impartially to each and everyone. This is the sixth wonder.

1. 7. Venerable sir, devas come and tell me that the doctrine of the Buddha is well-taught, it has the merit of being well-taught. This news conveyed to me by the devas is nothing surprising to me. The wonder is that, on such occasions, I reply to the devas: ‘Devas, whether you tell me so or not, verily, the doctrine of the Buddha is well- taught.’ (He believes that the doctrine of the Buddha is well-taught, not because the devas tell him, but because he himself knows it to be so). Although I hold such communications with devas, I feel no pride in that the devas come to me and that I have conversations with them. This is the seventh wonder.
   8. There is nothing surprising too, if I should pass away before the Bhagavǎ did and He would foretell: ‘The householder Ugga has completely destroyed the lower five fetters which lead to rebirth in the lower sensuous realms; he is an anǎgǎmin. Even before the Buddha's prediction, I have become an anǎgǎmin and I have already known this. This is the eighth wonder.

Of these eight wonders described by the householder Ugga. the sixth is concerned with making impartial offerings to the noble, the moral or the immoral alike. It is necessary to know how one can be impartially minded in such circumstances. The impartial attitude can be understood to be brought about in this manner, ‘As I have made the invitation with intention to give to the Sangha, the whole Order, when I make the offering to a noble one, I will not recognise him as such; I will not consider that I am making the offering to a noble one; I will keep in mind only that I am making my offering to the Sangha, the noble disciples of the Buddha as a whole. And when I make the offering to an immoral person, I will not recognise him as such; I will not consider that I am making the offering to an immoral person; I will keep in mind only that I am making an offering to the Sangha, the noble disciples of the Buddha, as a whole. In this manner, impartiality may be maintained.’

Emulating the example set by the householder Ugga. when making an offering one should ignore the status of the recipient, keep aside personal feelings towards him, and strive to keep firmly in mind only on the Order of Bhikkhus as a whole, so that his dǎna may be of the noble saughika-dǎna type. As taught explicitly by the Buddha in the Dakkhinǎ-Vibhaṅga Sutta mentioned above, when an offering is of saughika type, that is with the whole community of bhikkhus in mind when making it, it could bring innumerable, inestimable benefits to the donor, even if the recipient is an immoral person devoid of virtues.

An offering is of saughika-dǎna type when it is made with full reverence to the Sangha; but it is not always easy to do so. Suppose a person decides to make a saughika type of offering, having made the necessary preparations, he goes to a monastery and addresses the bhikkhus: ‚Reverend Sirs, I wish to make a saughika type of offering; may you designate someone from amongst the Sangha as its representative’. Should the bhikkhus nominate a novice whose turn it is to represent the Sangha, the donor is likely to be displeased; should they choose an elderly thera of long standing to represent them, he is likely to be overwhelmed with intense delight, exulting: ‚I have an elderly thera of long standing as my donee.‛ Such generosity, affected by the personality of the donee, cannot be a perfect saughika type of offering.

Only if one can accept the representative nominated by turn by the Sangha without any misgiving and without concerning oneself about whether the recipient is a novice or a bhikkhu, a young bhikkhu or an elderly bhikkhu, an ignorant bhikkhu or a learned bhikkhu, and makes one's offering, thinking only: ‚I make my offering to the Sangha.‛ with full

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reverence to the Sangha, one makes a truly saughika-dǎna.

Story concerning A Donor of A Monastery

This incident happened on the other side of the ocean, i.e. in India. A rich householder, who had already donated a monastery, intended to make an offering to the Sangha. After making necessary preparations, he went to the Order of Bhikkhus and addressed them:

‚Venerable Sirs, may you designate someone to receive my offering for the Sangha?‛ It happened that it was the turn of an immoral bhikkhu to represent the Sangha for alms. Although the man knew well that the designated bhikkhu was immoral, he treated him with full respect: the seat for the bhikkhu was prepared as for a ceremonious occasion, decorated with a canopy overhead, and scented with flowers and perfumes. He washed the feet of the bhikkhu and anointed them with oil very reverentially as if he were attending upon the person of the Buddha Himself. He then made his offering to the bhikkhu paying full homage to the Sangha.

That afternoon, the immoral bhikkhu went back to his house and standing at the doorway asked for a hoe, which he needed to make some repairs in the monastery. The donor of the monastery did not even bother to get up from his seat, he simply pushed the hoe towards the bhikkhu with his feet. The members of his family then asked him: ‚Respected Sir, this morning you had heaped upon this bhikkhu so much veneration; now you have shown him not even a small part of that deference. Why is this difference between the morning and the afternoon in your attitude towards the bhikkhu?‛ The man replied: ‚My dear ones, the respect I was showing this morning was towards the Sangha not to this immoral bhikkhu.‛

Some Considerations about Puggalika-dǎna and Saṅghika-dǎna

There are some people who maintain that if some person should approach one for alms and if one knew beforehand that the person was of bad morality, one should not make any offering to that person; if one should do so, it would be like watering a poisonous plant.

But it could not be said that every act of offering made knowingly to immoral persons is blameworthy. It is the volition of the giver that must be taken into account here. If the donor should approve of the bad habits of the recipient and give with a view to give him support and encouragement for continuance of his immoral practices, then only his gift would be like watering a poisonous plant. If the donor does not approve of the bad habits to the recipient and has no mind to encourage him to continue with his bad practices, but emulating the example of the monastery donor described above, if he makes his gift in such a way that it becomes a true saughika-dǎna, then no blame can be attached to such an offering.

Again there are some who maintain that whether the recipient is of good moral character or bad moral character is no concern of the donors; it only concerns the recipient. Therefore, remaining indifferent to the character of the recipient, whether good or bad, the donor should bear in mind: ‚This is a noble person, an ariya (or an arahat).‛ They maintain that this act of offering is blameless and as fruitful as making an offering to an arahat. This point of view is also untenable.

Disciples of other teachers, who are not in a position to know whether a person is an ariya or an arahat, wrongly believe their teachers to be Noble Ones, arahats. This sort of belief, called ‘Micchǎdhimokkha’, making the wrong decision or conclusion, is demeritorious. Surely it would be demeritorious and would be making a wrong decision if one were to bear in mind ‘these are noble, arahats’ when one knew full well that they were not. It is not proper, therefore, to hold such views.

When faced with such recipients in making one's offering, the proper attitude to bear in mind should be ‚Bodhisattas, in fulfilment of Perfection of Generosity, make their offering without discriminating between persons of high, medium or low status of development. I will also emulate the examples of the Bodhisattas and make my offerings to whoever comes for them, without discrimination.‛ In this way, one would not be giving support and

encouragement to the practice of bad habits and would not be ‚making wrong decisions or conclusions about the recipient’s‛ development; the act of offering would thus be free from blame or fault.

Controversies and difficulties arise only in the case of offerings made to individuals, puggalika-dǎna, because there exist various kind of individuals, good or bad. In the case of offerings made to the Sangha, saughika-dǎna, there exists only one kind of Sangha, not two

i.e. good and bad. (Here the noble disciples of the Buddha, the ariyas, are meant). There is no distinction amongst the Ariya Sangha as high, medium or low status of development, as they are all equally noble. Therefore, as explained above, whenever a donee appears before one, without taking into consideration his character, one should make the offering with the thought: ‚I make my offering to the disciples of the Buddha, the noble community of bhikkhus.‛ Then this offering is of saughika-dǎna type and the recipient is the Sangha; the person who appears before him to receive the offering is merely the representative of the Sangha. However low that person may be in his morals, the true recipient of the offering is the noble Sangha and therefore this is truly a noble gift.

Some people consider that it is very difficult to put into actual practice the advice to ignore the personal character of the immoral recipient, who has appeared before one, and to make one's offering with the mind directed not to him but to the noble Sangha, regarding him only as a representative of the Sangha. The difficulty arises only because of lack of habitual practice in such matters. In making reverential vows to the images and statues of the Buddha, regarding them as the Buddha's representatives, one is so accustomed to the practice of projecting one's mind from the images or statues to the person of the living Buddha, that, no one says it is difficult. Just as the householder Ugga during the Buddha's time and the monastery donor of Jambu Dipa had habituated themselves to make offerings to an immoral bhikkhu as a representative of the Buddha, so also Buddhists of modern times should discipline their mind to become accustomed to such an attitude.

four Kinds of Offerings to The Sangha as described in The Vinaya PiÔaka

The Vinaya PiÔaka, the Book of Discipline for members of the Order gives a description of the four categories of offerings made intentionally for the Sangha. But these four categories of saughika-dǎna do not concern the lay donor; only the seven types of saughika-dǎna mentioned above concern them. The Vinaya distinctions are made for the Order only so that they would know how to distribute the offerings amongst themselves. The four categories are: -

1. 1. 1. Sammukhībh|ta Saṅghika. Offerings to be distributed amongst the Sangha who are actually present at the time and place. Suppose an offering of robes is made at a certain place in towns or villages where some bhikkhus have gathered together, and the offering is made to the noble Sangha as a whole by the donor saying: ‚I give to the Sangha.‛ It will be difficult to reach all the noble Sanghas in the town or the village concerned. The distribution is, therefore, to be made amongst the Sangha present at the place at the time. Hence it is called ‘Sammukhībh|ta Saṅghika’ (Sammukhībhǔta - present at the time and place; Saughika - belonging to the Sangha.)
      2. ŒrǎmaÔÔha Saṅghika. Offerings to be distributed amongst the Sangha residing in the whole compound of the monastery. Suppose a donor comes into the compound of a monastery and makes an offering of robes to a bhikkhu or bhikkhus whom he meets, saying: ‚I give to the Sangha.‛ As the offering is made within the compound of the monastery, it belongs to all the Sangha residing in that whole compound of the monastery, not just to the bhikkhus who are in the vicinity. Hence it is called ‘ŒrǎmaÔÔha Saṅghika’ (Arǎmaṭṭha - residing in the compound; Saughika - belonging to the Sangha.)
      3. Gatagata Saṅghika. Offerings which belong to the Sangha of whichever place they (have gone to) have been taken to. Suppose a donor comes to a monastery where a solitary bhikkhu resides and makes an offering of one hundred robes, saying: ‚I give to the Sangha.‛ If the residing bhikkhu is well-versed in the Disciplinary rules, he can take possession of all the offerings for himself by simply remarking: ‚At the present moment, in this monastery, I am the sole Sangha; all these one hundred robes, therefore. belong to

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me and I take possession of them.‛ He has the right (according to the Vinaya rules) to do so; he cannot be faulted for monopolising the offering made to the Sangha. If the bhikkhu is not proficient in Vinaya rules, he would not know what to do. And without resolving, determining: ‚I am the sole owner. I take possession of them,‛ and suppose he left for another place taking the robes with him, and the bhikkhus he met there should ask him how he came by the robes. Suppose, on learning how he had come by them, these bhikkhus claimed their share of the robes, saying: ‚We also have the claim on them,‛ and consequently all the robes were divided equally with them. Then this sharing of the robes is deemed to be a good one. But suppose, without sharing the robes, he should continue on his way and encounter other bhikkhus, these bhikkhus would also be entitled to receive their share of the robes. In this way, wherever the bhikkhu would go, taking the robes with him, the bhikkhus of those places would be entitled to the robes. Hence it is called ‘Gatagata Saṅghika’ (Gatagata - wherever one has gone; Saughika - belonging to the Sangha.)

1. 1. 4. Catuddisǎ Saṅghika. Offerings which belong to all bhikkhus who come from the four directions. Such offerings include gifts which are weighty and important, which are to be treated with deference, for example, monasteries. They are not to be apportioned but for use by Sangha coming from all directions. Hence it is called ‘Catuddisa Saṅghika’ (Catuddissǎ - from four directions; Saughika - belonging to the Sangha.)

Not being mindful of the fact that these four categories are mentioned in the Vinaya rules to provide measures for distinction of ownership and distribution of the offerings made to the Sangha, some (bhikkhus) make use of these Vinaya provisions when lay people make offerings. To give an illustration, suppose a donor, actuated by pious devotion to a certain bhikkhu, builds a monastery, though not intending for him, but for the whole Sangha. for the libation ceremony, he invited ten bhikkhus including the bhikkhu to whom he has so much devotion. After recitation of the Parittas⁴, when the time comes for actual announcement of the offer, the bhikkhu wants to be offered the monastery as a puggalika- dǎna; offering made to a particular individual because he feels that living in a monastery meant for the whole Sangha entails so much liabilities and responsibilities. But the donor prefers to make it a saughika-dǎna because, he believes, such dǎna is superior and of much merit. The congregation resolves the disagreement between the donor and his preceptor by asking the donor to make the offering saying: ‚I give this monastery to the Sangha who is present here now‛ (Sammukhībhǔta Sangha). Then nine bhikkhus of the congregation, saying to the remaining one: ‚We relinquish all our right of possession of the monastery to your reverence,‛ hand over the new monastery to him and leave.

In this manner, such procedures are liable to be followed, believing that by so doing the donor's wish for a saughika-dǎna is fulfilled and the recipient who prefers individual ownership is also happy since the nine co-owners have relinquished their right of possession of the monastery making him the sole owner.

But, in reality, such a procedure is not proper and should not be followed. The gift of a monastery is a weighty, important one; the ten bhikkhus to whom the monastery has been offered cannot make any kind of apportionment of the offering between them; and the donor's gift amounts to be only a gift to the ten bhikkhus present on the occasion only and not to the Sangha as a whole.

20. Kǎla/Akǎla Dǎna

Offerings to be made on specific occasions (Kǎla-dǎna); offerings which may be made at any time (Akǎla-dǎna).

Offering of KaÔhina robes at the end of the Buddhist νassa for the duration of one month, offering of robes at the beginning of the Buddhist νassa, offering of dietary food to the sick, offering of food to visiting bhikkhus, offering of food to bhikkhus, who is setting out on a journey, are gifts made at a specific time for a specific purpose and are called timely

4. Parittas: lit. protection; it is a Buddhist custom to recite certain suttas such as Mañgala, Ratana, Metta, etc. to ward off evil influences.

gifts, kǎla-dǎna; all other gifts made as one wishes without reference to any particular time are called akala-dǎna.

Kǎla-dǎna is of greater merit than the akǎla type because the offering is made to meet the specific needs at a specific time. The kǎla type of dǎna, at the time of its fruition, brings specific good results at the time they are needed. for example, if the donor wishes for something special to eat, his wish is immediately fulfilled; likewise if he wishes to have some special clothes to wear, he will receive them. These are examples of special merit that accrues from offerings made at specific times to meet specific needs.

21. Paccakkha/ Apaccakkha Dǎna

Offerings made in the presence of the donor, (paccakkha-dǎna). Offerings made in the absence of the donor, (apaccakkha-dǎna).

The Pǎli word, ‘paccakkha’ is made up of ‘pati’ and ‘akkha’. ‘Pati’ means towards; ‘akkha’ means five senses, viz. eye, ear, nose, tongue, body. Although ‘paccakkha’ is generally ‚before the eye‛, its complete meaning should be ‚perceptible to the senses‛. Thus paccakkha-dǎna has wider scope, not just the kind of offering which can be seen by the donor but also those which can be perceived by his other senses, i.e. by sound, by smell, by taste and by touch. In this connection, it should be noted that offerings made in the presence of the donor, paccakkha-dǎna, is not exactly the same as sǎhatthika-dǎna, that made with one's own hands. Offerings made in one's presence at one's instance but not actually with one's own hands are of the anattika-dǎna type, offerings made at one's request or command.

22. Sadisa/Asadisa Dǎna

Offerings which can be matched by someone else (Sadisa-dǎna). Offerings which cannot be matched by anyone, unrivalled alms-giving, (Asadisa-dǎna.)

When offerings are made in a spirit of competition, donors make efforts to excel their rivals in the scale and magnificence of charity. In such competitions, the offerings that prove to be incomparable, inimitable is called unrivalled alms-giving, asadisa-dǎna.

According to the Dhammapada Commentary, as explained in the story of Unrivalled alms-giving in the Loka-vagga, only one donor appeared during the time of each Buddha to make an unrivalled offering. The story runs as follows:

At one time, the Buddha, after going on a long journey followed by five hundred arahats, arrived back at the Jetavana monastery. King Pasenadi of Kosala honoured the Buddha and His five hundred disciples by inviting them to the palace and offering them alms on a magnificent scale. The King invited also the people of Sǎvatthi to his ceremony of offering so that they could watch and rejoice in his meritorious deed. The next day, the people of Savatthi, rivalling the King, organized the resources of the whole city and gave offerings which surpassed those of the King, to the Buddha and His disciples. They invited the King to their ceremony to observe their deed and rejoice in it.

Catching on the spirit of competition, the King accepted the challenge of the citizens by conducting a more magnificent ceremony of offering the following day. The citizens in turn organized again another grand ceremony of offering to outdo the efforts of the King. In this manner, the keen contest between the King and his citizens went on until either side had made six offerings. (The contest still remained indecisive.)

As the seventh round came along, the royal donor was feeling despondent: ‚It will be very difficult to surpass the efforts of the citizens in this seventh round; and life would not be worth living, if I, the sovereign ruler of the land, were to lose to the people over whom I rule, in this round.‛ (To console him), his Queen, Mallikǎ, thought out a plan by which the King could make a truly majestic offering which the people would find impossible to match. She had a grand pavilion built, in which, five hundred great disciples of the Buddha, the arahats, were to sit in the pavilion with five hundred princesses fanning them and spraying perfumes and scented water in the pavilion. At the back of the five hundred arahats, there would be five hundred elephants, kneeling down and holding a white

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umbrella over each of the great arahats.

As the arrangements were being made according to the above plan, they found one tame elephant short of five hundred; so they had a wild, unruly elephant, which was notorious for its savagery, placed at the back of the Venerable Angulimala and made it hold a white umbrella like other elephants. People were amazed to find this savage beast taking part in the ceremony and holding an umbrella over the head of the Venerable Angulimala in a docile manner.

After the meal had been offered to the congregation, the King declared: ‚I made an offering of all the things in this, pavilion, allowable things as well as unallowable things. On this declaration, the people had to admit defeat in the contest, because they had no princesses, no white umbrellas, no elephants.

Thus the donor of the unrivalled dǎna at the time of ‘the Supreme Being of the three Worlds, the Buddha Gotama’, was King Pasenadi of Kosala. It should be noted that each of the other Buddhas also had a donor who presented him with an incomparable, unrivalled dǎna.

Type of Dǎna in Groups of Threes

1. Dǎna can also be divided into three categories, namely, Inferior (Hīna), Medium (Majjhima), and Superior (Paṇīta). The degree of benevolence of an act is dependent upon the strength of intention (chanda), the conscious state (citta), energy (νīriya), and investigative knowledge (νimamsǎ) involved in the act. When these four constituent elements are weak, the dǎna is said to be of inferior type; when they are of medial standard the dǎna is regarded as of medium type; when all are strong, the dǎna is considered to be of the superior order.
2. When the act of dǎna is motivated by desire for fame and acclaim, it is of inferior type; when the goal of dǎna is for attainment of happy life as a human being or a deva, it is of medium type; if the gift is made in reverence to the ariyas or Bodhisattas for their exemplary habits of offering, it is an excellent gift of superior order.

(In the various discourses of the Pǎli Texts are mentioned parks and monasteries which were given the names of the individual donors, for example, Jetavana, the garden of Prince Jǎti; Anǎthǎpiṇďikǎrǎma, the monastery donated by the rich man Anǎthapiṇďika; Ghositǎrǎma, the monastery donated by the rich man Ghosita. This system of nomenclature was adopted by the first Council Elders with the intention of encouraging others to follow the examples and thus acquire merit. So, donors today, when making such gifts, inscribe their names on marble or stone. In doing so, they should keep under control, by exercise of mindfulness, any desire for fame, bearing in mind that they make the gift in order to set an example to those who wish to acquire merit.)

3. When the donor aspires for happy life as a human or celestial being, his gift is of inferior type; when the aspiration is for attainment of enlightenment as a disciple (sǎνakabodhi-ñǎụa), or as a silent Buddha (paccekabuddha-ñǎụa), the gift is a medium one; when one aspires for Perfect Self-Enlightenment (sammǎsambodhi-ñǎụa or sabbaññuta- ñǎụa), one s gift is of superior order.

(By Bodhi or Enlightenment is meant knowledge of one of the four Paths. The sages of past had advised that, in order for the gift to serve as a means of escape from the round of rebirths (νiνaṭṭanissita), one should never make a gift in a haphazard or casual manner, one should seriously (positively) aspire for one of the three forms of Enlightenment while making an offering.)

4. Again, gifts may be of three types, viz. Dǎna-dǎsa, gift fit for a servant; Dǎna- sahǎya, gifts fit for a friend. and Dǎna-sǎmi, gifts fit for a master.

Just as in everyday life, one uses materials of good quality while offering the servants inferior quality, so also if one makes a gift of materials which are poorer in quality than those enjoyed by oneself, the gift is of inferior type (dǎna-dǎsa), fit for a servant. Just as

in everyday life, one offers one's friends things which one uses and enjoys, so also if one makes a gift of materials which are of the same quality as used by oneself, then the gift is said to be of medium type (dǎna-sahǎya). Just as in everyday life, one makes present of gifts to one's superior of things better in quality than those enjoyed by oneself, so also if one gives dǎna of superior quality materials, then the gift is said to be of superior order (dǎna-sǎmi).

5. There are three types of Dhamma-dǎna (the division being based on the meaning of the word ‘Dhamma’ for each type). In the first type of Dhamma-dǎna, ‘dhamma’ is the one associated with the Œmisa dhamma-dǎna, mentioned above under dǎna categories by Twos. Therein, it was stated that Œmisa dhamma-dǎna is the gift of palm-leaf scriptures or books of the Scriptures. In this classification. the ‘dhamma’ is the scriptures themselves, the Pariyatti Dhamma, that was taught by the Buddha and recorded on palm leaves or books as texts. The dhamma-dǎna, therefore, means, here, teaching the Scriptures or giving the knowledge of the Buddha's Teachings to others. The Pariyatti is the gift-object, the material that is given; the listener is the recipient and one who teaches or expounds the dhamma is the donor.

(In the second type of dhamma-dǎna, the ‘dhamma’ refers to the ‘dhamma’ included in the Abhidhamma classification of dǎnas into six classes, namely, r|pa-dǎna, sadda-dǎna, gandha-dǎna, rasa-dǎna, phoÔÔhabba-dǎna and dhamma-dǎna. The dhamma in this particular case is explained as all that forms the object of the mind or mental objects.) The mental objects are: (1) the five sense organs (pasǎda rǔpas); (2) the sixteen subtle forms (sukhuma rǔpas); (3) the 89 states of consciousness (citta); (4) 52 mental factors (cetasikas); (5) Nibbǎna and (6) Concepts (paññatti). Whereas in Pariyatti dhamma, the ‘dhamma’ means ‘noble’; here it has the sense of ‘the truth concerning the real nature of things’.

Dhamma-dǎna of this type is made through rendering assistance to those afflicted with (organic) disabilities, for example, weak eye-sight, trouble in hearing, etc. Helping others to improve their eye-sight is cakkhu (dhamma) dǎna; helping them to improve their hearing is sota (dhamma) dǎna, etc. The most distinctive dǎna of this type is jīνita-dǎna, the promotion of longevity of others. In a similar manner, the remaining dǎnas of the type, namely, gandha, rasa, phottabba and dhamma may be understood.

In the third type of dhamma-dǎna, the ‘dhamma’ refers to the Dhamma of the Triple Gem, namely, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. As in the second type of dhamma- dǎna, the Dhamma here means the Scriptures or the Teaching of the Buddha. Whereas in the second type the ‘dhamma’ is a gift-object for offering, while the listener is the recipient. In this third type, the Dhamma, which is a part of the trinity of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, itself forms the recipient to which offerings are to be made. When the Buddha and the Sangha become recipients, the associated Dhamma also becomes a recipient of offerings.

To give an illustration: The Buddha was residing in the Jetavana monastery in Savatthi. At that time, a rich householder who had faith in the Teaching, thought to himself thus: ‚I have had opportunities to honour the Buddha and His Sangha constantly with offerings of food, robes, etc. But I have never honoured the Dhamma by making offerings to it. It is time now that I should do so.‛ With this thought, he approached the Buddha and asked Him how to do about it.

The Buddha replied: ‚If you wish to honour the Dhamma, you should give food, robes etc. to the bhikkhu who is well cultivated in the Dhamma, but with the clear intention of honouring the Dhamma which he has realized.‛

When the householder asked Him which bhikkhu would be appropriate to receive such an offering, the Buddha told him to ask the Sangha. The Sangha directed him to give his offerings to the Venerable Œnanda. So he invited the Venerable Œnanda and made a generous offering of food, robes, etc. to him, keeping in mind that he was honouring the Dhamma which the Venerable Œnanda had realized. This story is described in the introduction to the Bhikkhǎparampara Jǎtaka, the thirteenth Jǎtaka of the Pakinnaka Nipǎta.

According to the story, the householder is the donor; food, robes, etc. are material objects

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of offering, and the body of the Dhamma which lies embedded in the person of the Venerable Œnanda is the recipient of the gift.

This householder was not the only one who made such offerings at the time of the Buddha, keeping in mind the Dhamma as the recipient of offering. The Text clearly mentions that the great ruler, Siri Dhammǎsoka (Asoka), with much pious reverence for the Dhamma built monasteries, 84,000 in all, one in honour of each of the 84,000 groups of Dhamma (Dhammakkhandha) which form the complete Teaching of the Buddha.

(Note of Caution)   Many have heard of this great dǎna of Asoka and have desired to

imitate him in such giving. But it is important to follow his example in a proper manner. The real motive of the great King Asoka was not merely giving of monasteries, but the paying of respect to the groups of Dhamma individually. Building of monasteries serves only to provide him with materials for offering. Later generations of donors, who wish to follow the example of Siri Dhammǎsoka, should understand that they build monasteries not just as objects for offering, not with the intention of acquiring the fame of being a monastery donor, but with the sole aim of paying homage to the Dhamma.

The significance of these dhamma-dǎnas may be appreciated when one remembers the importance of the Teaching (the Dhamma). The great Commentator, the Venerable Mahǎ Buddhaghosa concluded his work AÔÔhasǎlinī, the Commentary to the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, the first book of the Abhidhamma, with the wish ‚May the true Dhamma endure long. May all beings show reverence to the Dhamma. —— Ciram tiṭṭhatu saddhammo, dhamme hontu sagǎraνǎ, sabbepi sattǎ.‛ He made this wish because he was fully aware of the important role of the Dhamma. He realised that as long as the Dhamma endures, the Teachings of the Buddha cannot decline and everyone who honours the Dhamma will show reverence to the Teachings and follow them. And the Buddha had said: ‚Only those who see the Dhamma, see me.‛ And nearing the end of His life, the Buddha had said that ‚The Dhamma will be your teacher after I am gone. —— So νo mamaccayena satthǎ.‛

Therefore, one should strive to cultivate this third type of Dhamma-dǎna which plays such an important role.

6. Another three types of dǎna are classified as Dukkara-dǎna, gift which is difficult to be given; Mahǎ-dǎna, awe inspiring gift of great magnificence; and Sǎmañña-dǎna, common forms of gifts, which are neither too difficult to make, nor too magnificent.

An example of the first type, Dukkara-dǎna, may be found in the story of dǎna given by Dǎrubhaṇďaka Tissa. This story is given in the commentary to the 28th vagga of Ekadhammajhǎna, Ekakanipata of the Aṅguttara Nikǎya.

The Story of The Dǎna given by Dǎrubhaṇďaka

There was a poor man who lived in Mahǎgǎma of Sri Lanka, and who earned his living by selling firewood. His name was Tissa, but because his livelihood was selling firewood, he was known as Darubhaṇďaka Tissa (Tissa who has only firewood as property).

One day he had a talk with his wife: ‚Our life is so humble, wretched, lowly, although the Buddha had taught the benefits of nibaddha-dǎna, the observance of the duty of regular giving, we cannot afford to cultivate the practice. But we could do one thing; we could start giving alms-food regularly, twice a month, and when we could afford more, we will try for the higher offering of food by tickets⁵ (salǎkabhatta).‛ His wife was agreeable to his proposal and they started giving whatever they could afford as alms-food the next morning.

That was a very prosperous time for the bhikkhus who were receiving plenty of good food. Certain young bhikkhus and sǎmaụeras accepted the poor alms-food offered by the Darubhaṇďaka’s family, but threw it away in their presence. The housewife reported to her husband: ‚They threw away our alms-food,‛ but she never had an unpleasant thought over

5. According to I.B.Horner (Book of the Discipline), food tickets were issued at times when food was scarce. But the story of Dǎrubbanďaka suggests that the same is adopted also when food is abundant as a higher form of dǎna.

the incident.

Then Darubhaṇďaka had a discussion with his wife: ‚We are so poor, we cannot offer alms-food that would please the Noble Ones. What should we do to satisfy them.‛ ‚Those who have children are not poor,‛ said his wife in order to give him solace and encouragement and advised him to hire out the services of their daughter to a household, and with the money so acquired, to buy a milch cow. Darubhaṇďaka accepted his wife's advice. He obtained twelve pieces of money with which he bought a cow. Because of the purity of their wholesome volition, the cow yielded large quantities of milk.

The milk, they got in the evening, was made into cheese and butter. The milk, they got in the morning, was used by the wife in the preparation of milk porridge, which together with the cheese and butter, they offered to the Sangha. In this manner, they were able to make offerings of alms-food which was well accepted by the Sangha. from that time onwards the salǎkabhatta of Darubhaṇďaka was available only to the Noble Ones of high attainments.

One day, Darubhaṇďaka said to his wife: ‚Thanks to our daughter, we are saved from humiliation. We have reached a position in which the Noble Ones accepted our alms-food with great satisfaction. Now, do not miss out on the regular duty of offering alms-food during my absence. I shall find some kind of employment and I shall come back after redeeming our daughter from her bondage.‛ Then he went to work for six months in a sugar mill where he managed to save twelve pieces of money, with which, to redeem his daughter.

Setting out for home early one morning, he saw ahead of him the Venerable Tissa on his way to worship at the Pagoda at Mahǎgǎma. This bhikkhu was one who cultivated the austere practice of piụḍindǎpǎta, that is, he partakes only alms food, which is offered to him when going on alms round. Dǎrubhaṇďaka walked fast to catch up with the bhikkhu and strolled along with him, listening to his talk of the Dhamma. Approaching a village, Darubhaṇďaka saw a man coming out with a packet of cooked rice in his hand. He offered the man one piece of money to sell him the packet of meal.

The man, realising that there must be some special reason for offering one piece of money for the food packet when it was not worth the sixteenth part of it, refused to sell it for one piece of money. Darubhaṇďaka increased his offer to two, then three pieces of money and so on until he had offered all the money he possessed. But the man still declined the offer (thinking Darubhaṇďaka had still more money with him).

Finally, Darubhaṇďaka explained to the man: ‚I have no money with me other than these twelve pieces. I would have given you more if I had. I am buying this meal packet not for myself but, wishing to offer alms-food, I have requested a bhikkhu to wait for me under the shade of that tree. The food is to be offered to that bhikkhu. Do sell me the packet of food for this twelve pieces of money. You will also gain merit by doing so.‛'

The man finally agreed to sell his food-packet and Darubhaṇďaka took it with great happiness to the waiting bhikkhu. Taking the bowl from the bhikkhu, Dǎrubhanṇďaka put the cooked rice from the packet into it. But the Venerable Tissa accepted only half of the meal. Darubhaṇďaka made an earnest request to the bhikkhu: ‚Venerable Sir, this meal is sufficient for only one person. I will not eat any of it. I bought the food intending it only for you. Out of compassion for me, may the Venerable One accept all the food.‛ Upon this, the Venerable permitted him to offer all the food in the packet.

After the Venerable had finished the meal, they continued the journey together and he asked Dǎrubhaṇďaka about himself. Darubhaṇďaka told everything about himself very frankly to the Venerable. The Venerable was struck with awe by the intense piety of Darubhaṇďaka and he thought to himself: ‚This man has made a dukkara-dǎna, an offering which is difficult to make. Having partaken of the meal offered by him, under difficult circumstances, I am greatly indebted to him and I should show my gratitude in return. If I can find a suitable place, I shall strive hard to attain arahatship in one sitting. Let all my skin, flesh and blood dry up. I will not stir from this position until I attain the goal.‛ As they reached Mahǎgǎma, they went on their separate ways.

On arriving at the Tissa Mahǎvihǎra Monastery, the Venerable Tissa was allotted a room

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for himself, where he made his great effort, determined not to stir from the place until he had eradicated all defilements and become an arahat. Not even getting up to go on the alms round, he steadfastly worked on until at the dawn of the seventh day, he became an Arahat fully accomplished in the four branches of Analytical Knowledge (Patisambhidǎ). Then he thought to himself thus: ‚My body is greatly enfeebled. I wonder whether I could live longer.‛ He realised, through exercise of his psychic powers, that the phenomenon of nǎma-rǔpa, which constituted his living body, would not continue much longer. Putting everything in order in his dwelling place and taking his bowl and great robes, he went to the Assembly Hall at the centre of the monastery and sounded the drum to assemble all the bhikkhus.

When all the bhikkhus had gathered together, the head thera enquired who had called for the assembly. The Venerable Tissa, who had cultivated the austere practice of taking only alms food, replied: ‚I have sounded the drum, Venerable Sir.‛ ‚And why have you done so?‛ ‚I have no other purpose, but if any member of the Sangha has doubts about the attainments of the Path and Fruition, I wish them to ask me about them.‛

The head thera told him there were no questions. He then asked the Venerable Tissa why he had persevered so arduously sacrificing even his life for the attainment. He related all that had happened and informed him that he would pass away the same day. Then he said:

‚May the catafalque, on which my corpse would be supported, remains immoveable until my alms-food donor, Dǎrubhaṇďaka, comes and lifts it with his own hands.‛ And he passed away that very day.

Then King Kǎkavannatissa came and ordered his men to put the body on the catafalque and take it to the funeral pyre at the cremating grounds, but they were not able to move it. finding out the reason for this, the King sent for Dǎrubhaṇďaka, had him dressed in fine clothes and asked him to lift up the catafalque.

The text gives an elaborate account of how Darubhaṇďaka lifted the catafalque with the body on it easily over his head and how, as he did so, the catafalque rose in the air and travelled by itself to the funeral pyre.

Dǎrubhaṇďaka's dǎna involving the sacrifice ungrudgingly of twelve pieces of money which were needed for redeeming his own daughter from servitude and which had taken six whole months to earn is indeed a very difficult one to give and thus is known as Dukkara-dǎna.

Another example of such gifts is found in the story of Sukha Sǎmaṇera given in the tenth νagga of the Commentary to the Dhammapada. Before he became a sǎmaụera, he was a poor villager who wanted to eat the sumptuous meal of a rich man. The rich man Gandha told him that he would have to work for three years to earn such a meal. Accordingly, he worked for three years and obtained the meal he so earnestly longed for. When he was about to enjoy it, a Paccekabuddha happened to come by. Without any hesitation, he offered the Paccekabuddha the meal, which he had so cherished and which had taken him three years to earn.

Another example is provided by the Ummǎdantī Jǎtaka of Paññǎsa Nipǎta, which gives the story of a poor girl who worked for three years to get the printed clothes, which she wanted to adorn herself. When she was about to dress herself in the clothes, which she had so yearned for, a disciple of the Buddha Kassapa came by (who was covered only with leaves because he had been robbed of his robes by the dacoits). The giving away of clothes, which she so cherished and for which she had to work for three years, is also a Dukkara type of dǎna.

Awe-inspiring gifts of great magnificence are called Mahǎ-dǎna. The great Siri Dhammǎsoka's (Asoka's) gifts of 84,000 monasteries in honour of 84,000 passages of the PiÔaka are great dǎnas of this type. On this account, the Venerable Mahǎ Moggaliputta Tissa said: ‚In the Dispensation of the Buddha, or even in the life time of the Buddha, there is no one equal to you as a donor of the four requisites. Your offering is the greatest.‛

Although Venerable Mahǎ Moggaliputta Tissa said so, the gifts of Asoka were made on

his own initiative, without anyone to compete and, therefore, there is no need to classify them as Sadisa or Asadisa type of dǎna. Passenadi Kosala's gifts were made in competition with those of the citizens (of Savatthi ) and are, therefore, termed ‘Asadisa-dǎna’, the Matchless gift.

All other gifts of ordinary nature which are neither difficult to make nor of great magnitude are just common gifts, Sǎmañña-dǎna.

In addition to these, there is another classification of three Dhamma-dǎnas described in the Vinaya Parivǎra Texts and its commentary, viz.:

1. 1. Giving to the Sangha gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the Sangha,
   2. Giving to the Pagoda gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the Pagoda, and
   3. Giving to the individual gifts which were verbally declared to be offered to the individual.

These are called Dhammika-dǎna, gifts offered in connection with the Dhamma. (further details of these types of gifts will be found below in accordance with the nine gifts of Adhammika-dǎna).

Type of Dǎna in Groups of fours

The texts do not mention any type of gifts by fours. But Vinaya lists four kinds of requisites which may be offered as gifts. They are:

1. 1. 1. Gift of robe or robe-materials (civara-dǎna).
      2. Gift of alms food (pindapǎta-dǎna).
      3. Gift of dwelling places (senǎsana-dǎna).
      4. Gift of medicinal materials (bhesajja-dǎna).

Gifts may also be classified into four types depending on the purity of the donor and the receiver, viz:

1. Dǎna whose donor has morality but the recipient has not.
2. Dǎna whose recipient has morality but the donor has not.
3. Dǎna whose both the donor and the recipient are immoral.
4. Dǎna whose both the recipient and the donor have morality.

Type of Dǎna in Groups of fives

The Kǎladǎna Sutta in the Sumana Vagga, Pañcaka Nipǎta, Aṅguttara Nikǎya mentions the following five types of gifts which are to be given at an appropriate time:

1. Gift made to a visitor.
2. Gift made to one starting on a journey.
3. Gift made to one who is ill.
4. Gift made at the time of scarcity.
5. Gift of newly harvested grains and crops made to those endowed with virtue.

The fifth type has direct reference to farmers and cultivators, but it should be understood that it also includes the first fruits of labour of any one who offers them as dǎna before using them for oneself.

five Kinds of Asappurisa-dǎna There are five kinds of gifts made by men of no virtue:

1. Dǎna made without seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh. wholesome and clean.

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2. Dǎna made without due reverence or considerations.
3. Dǎna made without offering it with one's own hands; (for example, the dǎna of King Pǎyǎsi⁶, who instead of presenting the gifts with his own hands, had his attendant Uttara do so for him.)
4. Dǎna made in the manner of discarding one's leftovers.
5. Dǎna made without the knowledge that the good deed done now, will surely bring good results in the future (kammassakatǎ-ñǎụa).

five Kinds of Sappurisa-dǎna There are five kinds of gifts made by men of virtue:

1. Dǎna made after seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean.
2. Dǎna made with due reverence, with the mind firmly placed on the material for offering.
3. Dǎna made with one's own hands. (Throughout the beginningless cycle of existences, the beginning of which we have no knowledge, there have been many existences in which one is not equipped with hands and feet. In this existence, when one has the rare fortune of being equipped with complete limbs, one should avail oneself of this rare opportunity of offering gifts with one's own hands, reflecting that one would work for liberation making use of the hands one is fortunate enough to be born with).
4. Dǎna made with due care, and not as if one is discarding one's own leftovers.
5. Dǎna made with the knowledge that the good deed done now, will surely bring good results in the future.